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Sensory and Motor Functions QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this pict ure. Motor systems Qui ckTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see thi s pi cture. • Cilia, flagella - projections that extend from eukaryotic cells. • Both produced from microtubules organized in ring with 9 groups of 2 microtubules. • Motor proteins join microtubules together, consume ATP to drive sliding movement of microtubules past each other. http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/summer2002/microtubules.jpg QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Causes flagella or cilia to move back and forth - whip-like motion to drive movement. • Protist, free-swimming cell (sperm) flagella movement drives cell through water. • Cilia helps to move water over surface (respiratory tract). QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this pict ure. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • In cell - cytoskeleton drives movement of cytoplasmic contents from one part of cell to another. • Organelles can move because microtubules used as track to drive organelles (using ATP) around cell. • Actin microfilaments drive movement of cytoplasmic contents; change shape of cell by interacting with myosin. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this picture. http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/illustrations/actin.jpg QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Amoebas, protists, amoeboid cells in multicellular organisms (like macrophages) use actin microfilaments for cellular motion. • Cells form pseudopods - extensions of cytoplasm - help to change shape of cell - causes movement. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this pict ure. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. Hydrostatic skeletons • Hydrostatic skeleton - fluid held under pressure in closed body compartment. • Muscles that run length of cnidarian body contract and shorten body if water chamber inside sealed – done by closing gut opening - allows muscles to press against water resulting in movement. QuickTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to s ee this pic ture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. http://biology.unm.edu/ccouncil/Biology_203/Images/Protostomes/Nereis.jpg • Also in annelid (earthworm) locomotion. • Each segment contracts independently - contraction of muscles that run around worm, muscles that run length of worm. • Contraction of circular muscles makes worm segments longer and narrower; contraction of length muscles makes segments fat and wide. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a d eco mpres sor are nee ded to s ee this picture . • Earthworms move primarily by moving muscles against hydrostatic skeleton. • Have bristles (setae) in lower part of each segment to aid in movement. • Also help to anchor worm in earth while muscles push worm ahead. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. http://biology.unm.edu/ccouncil/Biology_203/Images/Protostomes/earthworm.gif Exoskeleton • Exoskeleton - hard skeleton that covers all muscles and organs of some invertebrates. • Exoskeletons in arthropods - chitin. • All exoskeletons made from material secreted from epidermis. • Functions in protection; limits growth of organism. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/LifeScience/GeneralBiology/Physiology/TheBones/MuscularSkeletal/exoskel.gif • Periodic molting of old exoskeleton occurs to allow organism to grow. • Muscles attached to interior of exoskeleton between jointed sections which contract, allowing movement. QuickTi me™ and a decompressor are needed to see thi s pi ctur e. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. http://www.dfw.state.or.us/MRP/shellfish/crab/large_images/molt_series.jpg Vertebrate endoskeleton • Framework for movement and support within vertebrate. • Skeletal muscles attached to bones, allowing movement when muscle contracts by bringing 2 bones together. • Also provides protection because it protects vital organs. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. http://img.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2007/11_01/elephantDM0711_800x511.jpg QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. Cartilage • Cartilage firm and flexible, not as hard or brittle as bone. • Makes up skeleton of lower vertebrates (sharks, rays). • Higher animals, cartilage part of embryonic skeleton, replaced during development by bone. • Found in joints in humans; has no nerves or vessels (longer healing time). Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. Bone • Bone - skeletons of higher animals. • Comes from replacement of cartilage or from direct ossification (dermal bone - skull). • Replacement bone, osteoblasts replace cartilage already formed. • Hollow cavity formed where bone marrow ends up (forms red blood cells) QuickTi me™ and a decompressor are needed to see t his pict ure. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Mature bone constantly being broken down by osteoclasts, replaced by osteoblasts. • In response to hormones; part of regulation of calcium in blood. • Spongy bone located in central portions of bone; consists of network of hard spicules separated by marrow-filled spaces where blood cells produced. QuickTime™ and a d eco mpres sor are nee ded to s ee this picture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Skeletal/compact_spongy_bone.jpg • Spongy bone - cannot withstand lateral stress. • Compact bone located on outer surfaces and articular surfaces; responsible for hardness of bone. • Consists of Haversian systems - cells embedded in matrix of inorganic material which gives bone its hardness. • Cells surround central blood vessel within Haversian canal. Qui ckTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see thi s pi cture. http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/B/Bone.html http://www.sirinet.net/~jgjohnso/skeletonorg.html • Bones held together by sutures or joints (movable and immovable). • Movable joints (hip joint) ligaments that serve as bone-tobone connection; tendons - skeletal muscle to bones - help bend skeleton at movable joints. • Axial skeleton - midline skeleton (skull, vertebrae, ribs); appendicular skeleton (appendages, pelvis.) Quick Time™a nd a dec ompr esso r ar e nee ded to see this pictur e. Fig. 49.28 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Attachments and joints • Origin of muscle - attachment to stationary bone; insertion - bone that moves during contraction. • Extensor extends or straightens bones at joint. • Flexor bends joint to an angle. • Joints held together by ligaments (bone to bone), tendons (bone to muscle). QuickTime™ and a d eco mpres sor are nee ded to s ee this picture . http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/LifeScience/GeneralBiology/Physiology/Muscular/Joints/joints1.gif QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. Types of muscle • Muscle contraction in all types of muscles depends on movement of actin and myosin filaments passed each other using ATP. • 1Skeletal muscle (voluntary) produces intentional movement; controlled by somatic nervous system • Each fiber has >1 nucleus. QuickTime™ and a d eco mpres sor are nee ded to s ee this picture . QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/Medicine/Physiology/Muscular/muscle_structure.jpg • Striations in muscle formed by overlapping strands of proteins actin and myosin. • Thin filaments – actin; thick filaments -myosin. • Contractile unit - sarcomere contains myosin in middle and overlapping actin filaments on each end. QuickTime™ and a d eco mpres sor are nee ded to s ee this picture . QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Muscle contraction results in myosin filaments sliding over actin filaments - sarcomere shrinks in length. • Contraction of skeletal muscle regulated by troponin-tropomyosin proteins that bind to actin filaments. • Absence of calcium - block myosin from binding to actin. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this picture. • Motor neuron fires action potential that reaches synapse of nerve with skeletal muscle cell (neuromuscular junction), muscle has action potential that spreads across whole cell - causes calcium to be released from internal stores in sarcoplasmic reticulum. QuickTime™ and a d eco mpres sor are nee ded to s ee this picture. http://www.arn.org/docs/glicksman/090104%20fig2%20actin.jpg QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Calcium causes troponintropomyosin to change shape; allows myosin to bind actin, moving filaments past each other. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this picture. • 2Smooth muscle involuntary; found in visceral organs. • Innervated by autonomic nervous system. • Each muscle fiber - 1 nuclei; muscle not striated. • Release calcium into cytoplasm to trigger contraction - do not use troponin-tropomyosin system. Qui ckTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see thi s pi cture. http://static.howstuffworks.com/gif/muscle-smooth-contracted.jpg QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • 3Cardiac muscle striated - 1 nuclei. • Nervous system monitors heart beat of cardiac muscle. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. http://virtual.yosemite.cc.ca.us/randerson/Lynn%27s%20Bioslides/126.jpg QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. Sensory Systems • Sensory cells receive information, use action potentials to transmit information to nervous system. • Brain determines nature of sensory information based on what cell it came from and what region of brain receives it. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/Sciences/Zoology/Biologicaldiverstity/AnimalsI/flatworm.gif QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. Vision • Eye in invertebrates (flatworms) patches of cells on surface - light sensitive. • Can move towards or away from light, cannot form image. • Arthropods - compound eyes with many sections gathering light from different directions. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. • Mollusks (squid) - more complex eyes to allow for image forming. • Human eye detects light, transmits information about intensity, color, and shape to brain. • Cornea (transparent) at front of eye bends, focuses light rays - pass through opening (pupil) whose diameter controlled by muscular iris (colored part of eye). Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. • Iris responds to intensity of light. • Increased light - pupil constrict. • Light continues through lens (behind pupil) - focuses image onto retina. • Retina has photoreceptors that change light into action potentials. • Muscle attached to lens can stretch to change focus to view far or near objects. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. • 2 types of photoreceptors in retina: cones and rods. • Cones - high-intensity illumination, sensitive to color. • Rods - low-intensity, important in night vision. • 3 different types of cones with different color sensitivity. • Color blind people lack one or more pigments. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. http://www.mediacollege.com/lighting/colour/images/ishihara7.gif A deficiency in cones is responsible for color-blindness QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Rhodopsin (protein) receives visual signal, has retinal group bound to it. • Retinal group changes when hit by photon - changes structure of rhodopsin; starts cascade of signal transductions that lead to action potential. • Photoreceptor cells synapse onto bipolar cells - synapse onto ganglion cells. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. http://cas.bellarmine.edu/tietjen/HumanBioogy/Sensory/Rhodopsin.gif • Axons of these ganglion cells bundle to form optic nerves - send visual messages to brain. • Interpretation of messages done in cerebral cortex. QuickTi me™ and a decompressor are needed to see thi s pi ctur e. Fig. 49.15 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Hearing and balance • Ear responsible for transforming impulses into sound as well as maintaining balance. • Sound waves pass through 3 regions as they enter ear. • Outer ear consists of auricle (pinna), auditory canal. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • At end of auditory canal - tympanic membrane (eardrum) of middle ear. • Vibrates at same frequency as incoming sound. • 3 bones - mallus, incus, stapes amplify stimulus and transmit it through oval window to fluid-filled inner ear. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrates/Bones/Ear/Images/Incus2.gif QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Inner ear - cochlea and semicircular canals. • Cochlea contains organ of Corti specialized cells (hair cells). • Vibration of bones exerts pressure on fluid in cochlea which stimulates hair cells to change pressure into action potentials. QuickTime™ and a d eco mpres sor are nee ded to s ee this picture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. http://www.2ears2hear.org.uk/images/P_cochlear-noConsole.jpg • Action potentials travel (via auditory nerve) to brain for processing. • Frequency of sound detected by position of cochlea of hair cells that are stimulated; volume detected by number of signals received. QuickTime™ and a d eco mpres sor are nee ded to s ee this picture. Fig. 49.17 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Fig. 49.18 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Semicircular canals are used for balance. • Each of 3 semicircular canals in inner ear is perpendicular to other 2 and filled with a fluid endolymph. • At base of each canal - chamber with sensory hair cells. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. http://www.daviddarling.info/images/semicircular_canals.jpg • As head rotates, endolymph in one of canals displaced - puts pressure on hair cells in it. • Changes nature of impulses sent by vestibule nerve to brain. • Brain interprets this information to determine position of head. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. Fig. 49.19 Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Taste and smell • Chemosensor detects chemicals in environment. • Taste and smell both involve chemosensors. • Taste buds located on tongue, soft palate, and epiglottis. • Outer surface of taste bud has taste pore where microvilli are located. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Nerve fibers located in taste buds that are stimulated by taste buds. • These neurons transmit impulses to brainstem. • 4 taste sensations: sour, salty, sweet, and bitter. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v444/n7117/images/nature05401-f1.2.jpg QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Olfactory receptors found in olfactory membrane in upper part of nostrils. • Receptors - specialized neurons from which olfactory hairs project. • Substances enter nasal cavity and bind to receptors in cilia which set off receptors. Quic kTime™ and a dec ompres sor are needed to see this pic ture. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Head_olfactory_nerve.jpg/250px-Head_olfactory_nerve QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this picture. • Axons from olfactory receptors join to form olfactory nerves form direction to olfactory bulbs in base of brain. QuickTime™ and a decompressor are needed to see this pict ure.