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Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Chapter 7
Memory
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Memory


Memory is a general term for the storage, retention and
recall of events, information and procedures.
The quality of an individual’s memory may vary based upon
the nature of the information being retained and recalled,
the level of interest in it, and its significance to that
individual.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Module 7.1

Varieties of Memory
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory

Hermann Ebbinghaus studied his own ability to memorize
new material
 He invented over 2300 nonsense syllables and put them
into random lists.
 Over 6 years he memorized thousands of lists of
nonsense syllables.
 Generally he found that delay between memorization
and recall resulted in the forgetting of a large portion of
the material.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.1 Hermann Ebbinghaus pioneered the scientific study of memory by
observing his own capacity for memorizing lists of nonsense syllables.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory

Role of interference
 Part of the difficulty for Ebbinghaus may have been the
fact that he memorized so many lists of nonsense
syllables.
 If an individual learns several sets of related materials,
the retention of the old material makes it harder to retain
new material, and the learning of the new materials
makes it harder to retain the old.
 This phenomenon is known as interference.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory

Role of interference
 When retaining old material makes it hard to retain new
material, this is called proactive interference.
 When learning new material makes it hard to retain old
material, this is called retroactive interference.
 The problem for Ebbinghaus was that he had memorized
so many lists of nonsense syllabus that he experienced
a strong effect from proactive interference.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
You answer the telephone at your new receptionist job with
the name of the your former employer’s firm. What kind of
interference caused this embarrassing slip-up?
Proactive interference
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory

Meaningfulness
 Another feature of the pioneering work of Ebbinghaus is
that he memorized nonsense syllables.
 It is clear from studies of memory that meaningful
materials are easier to remember.
 It is also true that distinctive or unusual information is
easier to retain.
 The tendency of people to remember unusual items
better than more common items is called the von
Restorff effect.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory

Dependence of memory on the method of testing
 It is possible that since Ebbinghaus required himself to
repeat the syllables in correct order after memorizing
them, he underestimated his actual retention of the
information.
 How well one appears to remember something
depends in part on how one is tested after learning.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory

Dependence of memory on the method of testing
 Recall (or free recall) is the simplest method for the
tester but the most difficult for the person being tested.
To recall something is to produce it, as is done on essay
and short-answer tests.
 Cued recall gives the person being tested significant
hints about the correct answer. A fill-in-the-blank test
uses this method.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Table 7.1 The difference between recall and cued recall
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory

Dependence of memory on the method of testing
 Recognition is the method that requires the person being
tested to identify the correct item from a list of several
choices. Multiple-choice tests use the recognition
method.
 The savings, or relearning method compares the rate at
which someone relearns material as opposed to learning
something new. The amount of time saved between the
original learning and the relearning is a measure of
memory.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Ebbinghaus’s Pioneering Studies of Memory


We are indebted to Ebbinghaus for initiating the scientific
study of memory.
We have also learned important facts about the nature of
memory from his difficulties with interference.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
The bonus question on your Introductory Psychology test asks
you to name the stages of the human sleep cycle.
Recall
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
You are on a game show and the question that you must
answer is “_________ is the city that is home to the Eiffel
Tower, the Louvre, and the Cathedral of Notre Dame.”
Cued recall
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
You answer more questions on the subject of molecular
biology correctly on the comprehensive semester final than
you did on the chapter test two months earlier.
Relearning or Savings
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
While at a hardware store, you are looking at several
shades of light green paint in hopes of repainting the walls
of your home in that exact shade.
Recognition memory
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

The information-processing model of memory draws an
analogy between a computer and the workings of memory
in the human brain.
 According to this view, information enters the system, is
processed and coded in various ways, and is then
stored.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.4 The information-processing model of memory resembles a computer’s
memory system, including temporary and permanent memory.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory


The computer has a “buffer” – a temporary storage place
for letters that you type faster than it can display them.
This is akin to our sensory memory store
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory


The computer has RAM, or random-access memory, for
temporary storage of information that has not yet been
written to the hard drive. This information is still vulnerable
to damage or loss.
This is analogous to our short-term, or working memory.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory


The computer has a hard drive, in which information that
you are writing or entering can be permanently stored.
This is like our long-term memory.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

The sensory store
 Although it is probably more accurately described as a
combination of memory and perception, the sensory
store is considered to be the first stage of memory
processing.
 It is a very brief (less than a second) stage that registers
everything that is perceived in the moment that we call
“now.”
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.5 George Sperling (1960) flashed arrays like this on a screen for 50
milliseconds. After the display went off, a signal told the viewer which row to recite.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Short-term and long-term memory
 Temporary storage of information that someone has just
encountered is short-term memory.
 Long-term memory is a relatively permanent storage of
mostly meaningful information.
 Reminders or hints that help us to retrieve information
from long-term memory are referred to as retrieval cues.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Short-term memory
 If a friend asks you what he or she just said, and you
were paying attention, you could probably repeat their
words or something close to them.
 This is because you are being asked to recall something
from short-term memory.
 If you were not paying attention, you would not recall it at
all. Attention is the process that moves information from
the sensory store to short-term memory.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Table 7.3 After about 1 second, you can no longer recall information from the sensory
store. Short-term memories can be recalled up to about 20 seconds without
rehearsal—much longer if you continually rehearse them. Long-term memories
decline somewhat, especially at first, but you may be able to retrieve
them for a lifetime. Your address from years ago is probably in your long-term
memory and will continue to be for the rest of your life.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Long-term memory
 If your psychology instructor asks you to name the
function of the thalamus, your first reaction might be to
panic because you have no idea.
 The instructor says, “It has something to do with sensory
information, right?”
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Long-term memory
 Then it begins to come back to you – the thalamus is a
relay and integration station for sensory information on
its way to the cerebral cortex.
 The instructor gave you a hint that functioned as an
effective retrieval cue. These cues can be generated
internally or be suggested by others.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Capacities of short and long-term memory
 Most normal adults can immediately repeat a list of
about seven bits or pieces of information, with expected
variations in range from five to nine items.
 This “magic range” of 7 +/- 2 bits is a well-replicated
finding regarding the capacity of short-term memory.
 It can be expanded through techniques such as
chunking into larger, meaningful units.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.6 We overcome the limits of short-term memory through chunking. You
probably could not remember the 26-digit number in (a), but by breaking it up into a
series of chunks, you can remember it and dial the number correctly.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Capacities of short and long-term memory
 The capacity of long-term memory cannot easily be
measured.
 Unlike a computer, we are not dealing with a physical
limit of size.
 Humans are constantly dumping or removing some of
their stored information through disuse.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Decay of short and long-term memory
 Information that has been stored in long-term memory
may be vulnerable to the aforementioned effects of
interference, but it generally does not decay due to the
effects of time alone.
 Information being held in short-term memory is
vulnerable immediately to the effects of the passage of
time.
 Forgetting tends to begin in seconds unless rehearsal is
permitted.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.9 In a study by Peterson and Peterson (1959), people remembered a set of
letters well after a short delay, but their memory faded greatly over 20 seconds if they
were prevented from rehearsing during that time.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Capacities of short and long-term memory
 How long one is able to hold information in short-term
memory has little relationship to how well it will be stored
in long-term memory.
 If the information being held in short-term memory is
meaningful, it will be transferred easily to long-term
memory and be less subject to decay.
 Up until recently, cognitive psychologists referred to this
transfer process as consolidation, the formation of a
long-term memory.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Capacities of short and long-term memory
 It is now thought that how easily information is
consolidated depends on its meaningfulness to the
individual. This idea implies that perhaps the division
between the short and long-term memory stages is at
least in part an artificial one.
 If the information is meaningful, the groundwork for
storing that information has already been done.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Working memory
 Working memory is a revised concept of the
intermediate stage between our first encounter with new
information and its eventual storage.
 Working memory is a system for processing or
working with current information.
 Working memory is conceptualized as having three
major components.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Working memory’s 3 components:
 A phonological loop that stores and rehearses
information, similar to the 7 +/- 2 idea from the traditional
concept of short-term memory.
 A visuospatial sketchpad that stores and manipulates
visual and spatial information.
 A central executive that governs shifts of attention. Good
working memory is able to handle shifts between two or
more tasks or multiple aspects of complex tasks.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Other memory distinctions
 Declarative memory is the ability to state a fact.
 Procedural memory is the memory of how to do
something.
 Long-term declarative memory is classified as either
semantic (dealing with principles of knowledge) or
episodic (containing events and details of life history.)
 Your memory of a recent piano lesson is declarative
and episodic; your memory of how to read music is
semantic; your memory of how to play the piano is
procedural.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Other memory distinctions
 A normal type of forgetting is source amnesia.
 This involves a combination of episodic and semantic
memory. We remember a statement or knowledge
related (semantic) fact but we forget the context in which
we learned it.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Information-Processing View of Memory

Other memory distinctions
 The context in which one learns information is episodic.
 It can be inferred from the occurrence of this
phenomenon that episodic memory is more fragile than
semantic knowledge.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Varieties of Memory

Although there is still much disagreement about the nature
of memory, there is general agreement that memory is not a
single store into which we dump the sum of our knowledge
and experiences.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Varieties of Memory

Memory is a complex combination of many processes, and
its properties depend on a number of factors
 The type of material memorized
 The individual’s experience with similar materials
 The method of testing
 The length of time since the material was encountered
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Module 7.2

Long Term Memory Storage
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Memory Improvement

To improve memory, one must improve the strategies used
to originally store the material.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Influence of Emotional Arousal

It is well understood that the greater the emotional arousal
associated with an event, the greater the likelihood that the
event will be remembered.
 Although the event itself may be remembered, the
emotion associated with the event does not guarantee
the formation of an accurate memory for the details of
the event.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
The Influence of Emotional Arousal



During stressful or emotional events, the sympathetic
nervous system works to boost production of the hormones
cortisol and adrenaline.
This is usually accompanied by increased stimulation of the
amygdala.
The net effect of these processes is to enhance memory
storage of information associated with emotional or
stressful events.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
A Vietnam War Veteran who was involved in several very
intense and violent campaigns has been medically monitored
for years. He has lower than normal levels of cortisol. How
would this affect his memory?
He should report frequent memory lapses.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Meaningful Storage and Levels of Processing

The levels-of-processing principle
 The levels-of-processing principle states that the ease
with which we can retrieve a memory depends on the
number and types of associations that we form with that
memory
 The more ways in which you think about the material,
the deeper your processing will be and the more
easily you will remember the material later.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Meaningful Storage and Levels of Processing

The levels-of-processing principle
 Ways to think about the material would include asking
questions such as:
 Can I think of similar concepts in another subject
area?
 How do these apply to me?
 What experiences do I have that are related to this
information?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Meaningful Storage and Levels of Processing

The levels-of-processing principle
 To improve your level-of-processing:
 Think about each individual item in a set that you are
trying to learn.
 See if you can determine whether or not relationships
exist among the items.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Meaningful Storage and Levels of Processing

The levels-of-processing principle
 The levels of processing are:
 Superficial processing – simply repeating the material
that you are trying to memorize.
 Deeper processing – think about each item or parts of
the material individually.
 Still deeper processing – note the associations
between the items or parts of the material.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
Who do you think tends to get better grades in a course,
students who read the book quickly or those who read the
book slowly?
The slow pokes
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
How would level-of-processing be useful to aspiring actors?
It would help them memorize their lines more effectively.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Timing of Study Sessions

The serial-order effect
 The serial-order effect states that we tend to remember
the beginning and end of a list better than the middle.
 The primacy effect is the tendency to remember the
beginning.
 It is partly due to the lack of proactive interference
while you rehearse the first few items.
 The recency effect is the tendency to remember the
end.
 The last few items are not subject to as much
retroactive interference.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Timing of Study Sessions

Because of these effects, the best strategy for anyone who
needs to learn a lot of material is to space out the study
sessions
 Study the material
 Wait for awhile
 Return to the material and test yourself on it
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Timing of Study Sessions

The SPAR method
 If you want to remember something for the long-term,
study and review it under varying conditions with
substantial intervals between sessions
 One systematic way to accomplish this is to use the
SPAR method.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Timing of Study Sessions

The SPAR method
 Survey – get an overview of the material.
 Process meaningfully – read the material carefully and
think about how it relates to your other knowledge and
experiences.
 Ask questions – use the review questions included with
the material, or create your own and answer them.
 Review – wait a day or so, and retest yourself.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
In order to ace your comprehensive Introductory Psychology
final exam, should you immediately review this chapter, or
should you schedule some review of the first two or three
chapters?
Start reviewing the earlier material
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Use of Special Coding Strategies

Retrieval Cues
 Retrieval cues are bits of associated information that
help you to regain complex memories for later use. Many
factors associated with learning can act as retrieval
cues.
 The encoding specificity principle states that the
associations formed at the time of learning are
typically the most effective retrieval cues.
 State-dependent memory is our tendency to
remember something better if your physical condition
is the same at the time of recall as it was at the time
of learning.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.11 According to the principle of encoding specificity, the way we code a
word during original learning determines which cues will remind us of that word later.
For example, when you hear the word queen, you may think of that word in any of
several ways. If you think of queen bee, then the cue playing card will not remind you
of it later. If you think of the queen of England, then chess piece will not be a good
reminder.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Table 7.5a
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Table 7.5b
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Use of Special Coding Strategies

Mnemonic devices
 A mnemonic device is any memory aid that is based on
encoding each item in a special way. There are many
types of mnemonic devices.
 The method of loci involves memorizing a series of
places. Using a vivid image, you associate each of
these locations with something you want to
remember.
 The peg method involves memorizing a list of objects
(“pegs”) and forming mental images to link the
information that you wish to memorize using these
pegs.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.12 A simple mnemonic device is to think of a short story or image that will
remind you of what you need to remember. Here you might think of images to help
remember functions of different brain areas.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.14 The method of loci is one of the oldest mnemonic devices. First, learn a
list of places, such as “my desk, the door of my room, the corridor, . . .” Then link
each of these places to the items on a list of words or names, such as a list of the
names of Nobel Peace Prize winners.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Improving Our Memory


We refer to our memories as “stored” and “retrieved” as if
they were items on a shelf in a warehouse. But this
analogy is only partially useful.
The more you know about a topic, the more interested you
are in it, the easier it is to establish and retain new
information related to the topic.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
“Normal” Forgetting

There are many plausible reasons to account for the
forgetting of information
 Interference
 Decay – the memory is subject to the combined effects
of time and interference
 Loss of retrieval cues
 Source amnesia
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Module 7.3

Retrieval of Memories
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events


When you try to remember an event, you usually start with
details you remember clearly, and fill in the gaps.
This is the process of reconstruction. During an event, we
construct a memory. When we try to retrieve the memory,
we reconstruct an account based partly on surviving
memories and partly on expectations of what must have
happened.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Your memory for activities that are routine – your breakfast,
lunch or dinner for example – from the past week can be
reconstructed with little effort. But these will fade rapidly
unless something unusual happened.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events



If your family all got sick after one meal, you will probably
remember that meal in better detail for much longer than is
usual.
If you met a new love interest when you were out to dinner
with friends, this event will also be more memorable and
easily reconstructed.
However, you may fill in missing details with typical
activities associated in your memory with routine meals at
home or dining out.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events


We will add words to lists that we’ve heard or read
depending on what content we believe would have been on
the list, based on its apparent theme.
The less certain of our memories that we are, the more we
will rely on our expectations.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Hindsight bias
 Hindsight bias is the tendency to mold our recollection of
the past to how events later turned out.
 We say “I knew that was going to happen!” after the
event has occurred.
 Our memories are tailored as we reconstruct the
event to fit that outcome.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.17a Mean estimates of the likelihood of four outcomes varied depending on
what each group was told about the “actual” outcome. Those who thought the British
had won said that under the circumstances the British had a very high probability of
victory. Those who thought the Gurkas had won said that was the most likely
outcome under the circumstances, and so forth. (Based on data of Fischhoff, 1975)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.17b Mean estimates of the likelihood of four outcomes varied depending on
what each group was told about the “actual” outcome. Those who thought the British
had won said that under the circumstances the British had a very high probability of
victory. Those who thought the Gurkas had won said that was the most likely
outcome under the circumstances, and so forth. (Based on data of Fischhoff, 1975)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.17c Mean estimates of the likelihood of four outcomes varied depending on
what each group was told about the “actual” outcome. Those who thought the British
had won said that under the circumstances the British had a very high probability of
victory. Those who thought the Gurkas had won said that was the most likely
outcome under the circumstances, and so forth. (Based on data of Fischhoff, 1975)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.17d Mean estimates of the likelihood of four outcomes varied depending on what each
group was told about the “actual” outcome. Those who thought the British had won said that
under the circumstances the British had a very high probability of victory. Those who thought the
Gurkas had won said that was the most likely outcome under the circumstances, and so forth.
(Based on data of Fischhoff, 1975)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

The “false” or “recovered” memory controversy
 Reports of long-lost memories, prompted by clinical
techniques, are known as recovered memories. Often
these are memories of abuse that took place in early
childhood.
 There have been examples of accurate and inaccurate
memories constructed through clinical techniques.
 Psychological researchers want to know if it is likely that
people will forget abusive or traumatic experiences.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Memory for traumatic events
 Sigmund Freud believed that it was possible to repress a
painful memory, motivation or emotion, to move it from
the conscious to the unconscious mind.
 This idea is not well supported in research on memory
and forgetting.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Memory for traumatic events
 Research indicates that it is possible to forget a
traumatic event, but whether this happens depends on a
number of factors – age at the time of the event, reaction
of family, and type of event.
 Most people do not forget traumatic events if they
happen later than age 3.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Memory for traumatic events
 Whether this happens because of repression or normal
forgetting is unclear. People forget many pleasant and
joyful events from early childhood as well.
 Repression of traumatic events does not fit well with our
understanding of the biological process of storing
memory.
 Emotional stimulation releases cortisol. The net effect is
to improve the storage of memory.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Suggestion and false memory
 A false memory is a report that an individual believes to
be a memory but that does not correspond to actual
events.
 Various studies have shown that it is possible by
suggestion to implant memories for events that did
not occur.
 About a quarter of subjects in several studies were
convinced that they had been lost as children after a
researcher suggested it to them.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Suggestion and false memory
 Plausible events were more likely to be remembered,
and the memories were somewhat vague, but these
results were achieved after a single, brief suggestion.
 Similarly, memory for details after watching a videotaped
event can be altered or distorted by the use of leading
questions.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Children as eyewitnesses
 Research with children can be ethically difficult because
of their vulnerability.
 We know that children forget rapidly and sometimes
confuse fantasy and reality. Sometimes children witness
crimes or other events about which we need information.
 How do we work with children to tap their memories
accurately? Can we do this?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Children as eyewitnesses
 Under proper conditions, children as young as three are
able to make accurate reports of events that they have
witnessed.
 Young children can answer specific questions
accurately.
 If there is a delay between the event and the
questioning, a child is more likely to give incorrect
information.
 If the question is not understandable, the child may
give incorrect information.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Children as eyewitnesses
 Repetition of the question in the same interview session
may yield two different answers.
 Repetition of the question between spaced interview
sessions may help the child remember better, which is
important in court testimony.
 Dolls and props may seem like helpful tools, but actually
do not increase the accuracy of a child’s recall or
testimony.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Reconstructing Past Events

Children as eyewitnesses
 The most effective strategies in interviewing young
children are:
 Use of simple questions
 Maintenance of a non-threatening atmosphere during
the interview
 Avoidance of suggestions or pressure
 Schedule the interview as soon as is reasonable after
the event
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
True, False, Maybe



Memories may or may not be reliable.
There is much evidence of forgetting and distortion. We
use adaptive strategies for “filling in the gaps” – reason and
logic.
It is prudent to always consider the possibility that a
seemingly clear memory is distorted or false.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Module 7.4

Amnesia
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage


Amnesia is a severe loss or deterioration of memory.
We can learn a lot about the different forms of memory by
studying these cases.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

“H.M.”
 In 1953, “H.M.” had his hippocampus and surrounding
areas of the temporal lobes removed to control his
intractable seizures.
 Although his seizures did decrease dramatically, he
experienced such dramatic memory impairment that
such a surgery would never be attempted again.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.19 (a) The hippocampus is a large subcortical structure of the brain
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

“H.M.”
 He experienced massive anterograde amnesia. He
was unable to store any new memories. (It was 1953 for
the rest of his life.)
 He had moderate retrograde amnesia. He could not
remember many events that occurred between 1 and 3
years before his surgery.
 He did retain normal short-term memory functions.
 His procedural memory was retained intact.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Figure 7.20 Brain damage induces retrograde amnesia (loss of old memories) and
anterograde amnesia (difficulty storing new memories.)
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

“H.M.”
 What has been learned about the hippocampus from
H.M.’s tragic story?
 All other things being equal, the more difficult a
memory task is, the more it depends on the proper
functioning of the hippocampus.
 The hippocampus is important for remembering
details.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

Frontal-lobe damage
 The frontal lobes receive a great deal of input from the
hippocampus. Damage to the frontal lobes causes some
problems that are similar to hippocampal damage, and
some unique problems as well.
 Frontal lobe damage can occur as a result of stroke,
head trauma, or Korsakoff’s syndrome, a dementia that
results from a deficiency of vitamin B1, brought on by
chronic alcoholism.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

Frontal-lobe damage
 The deficiency leads to loss and shrinkage of neurons in
many parts of the brain, especially the thalamus and
prefrontal cortex.
 Multiple impairments of memory can result from this
deterioration.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

Frontal-lobe damage
 Typical symptoms of Korsakoff’s syndrome include –
 Apathy
 Confusion
 Retrograde amnesia – usually dating back to about
15 years before the onset of the syndrome
 Anterograde amnesia
 Confabulation – wild guessing mixed in with correct
information, generated in an effort to hide gaps in
memory.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

Implicit memory in amnesiac patients
 Recall these two divisions of long-term memory:
 Explicit memory involves the recall of knowledge and
events in which a person deliberately retrieves the
answer and recognizes it as a correct one.
 Your instructor asks you to name two
psychologists associated with the principles of
operant conditioning.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

Implicit memory in amnesiac patients
 Implicit memory does not require recognition. The recall
of activities stored in implicit memory seems effortless
and unconscious.
 You drive your car to school everyday but don’t
remember any details of the activities associated with
driving.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

Implicit memory in amnesiac patients
 Amnesiac patients such as H.M. show normal ability to
use and store new implicit memory, but have impaired
functioning of the factual memory activities of explicit
memory.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

Implicit memory in amnesiac patients
 NOR____
 DET____
 COR____
 FRO____
 Complete the words listed above.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

Implicit memory in amnesiac patients
 If you wrote any of the following – normal, detail, correct
or cortex, frontal, there is a good chance that you were
recalling words that appeared in the slides that preceded
the task. It will be easy for you to remember this now
that you know what happened.
 Amnesiac patients will perform similarly on this task –
called “priming” – they will complete the words in a
similar manner, but they will never remember having
read them previously.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia After Brain Damage

Implicit memory in amnesic patients
 It is not uncommon for such a patient to learn a video
game or other procedural task perfectly. However, the
patient will never remember the event of being taught
the game, or any individual session of playing it, even if
that patient becomes highly skilled at the actual playing!
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
You have learned to play the guitar. What type of memory is
involved in playing a song for your friends?
Implicit memory
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
You play guitar at a party for your friends. Later you
remember the good time you had playing for them. What
type of memory is involved in remembering this?
Explicit memory
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check



Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?
a. There is a soap opera on TV at home. You don’t get to
watch it often, so you can never tell your friends the names
of the characters. Two days later you are watching a late
night TV program and you recognize one of the leading
men as a guest.
b. You are sitting behind a couple at the movies who are
having an animated discussion about skydiving. You are not
paying attention to the content of their discussion. Later you
spontaneously comment to your friends about how much
fun it would be to learn to skydive.
“ b” is implicit memory
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Concept Check
What kinds of memory are most impaired in frontal lobe
dementia patients and patients like H.M.? What kinds are
least impaired?
Declarative or explicit memories are most impaired.
Procedural or implicit memories are least impaired.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Infant Amnesia


Few people can remember events earlier than age 5 or 6.
Though children younger than this can describe earlier
events in their own lives, these memories tend to fade.
The scarcity of early declarative memory is called infant
amnesia or childhood amnesia. Why does this happen?
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Infant Amnesia



Freud believed that this was a result of repression due to
the emotional traumas of infancy. He offered no evidence
for this theory.
Some cognitive psychologists believe that this is because
early memories are nonverbal and later memories are
verbal.
A biological explanation is that the hippocampus is not fully
developed and doesn’t store memories as completely.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Infant Amnesia



Another cognitive explanation is that lasting memories
require a sense of self, and this typically doesn’t develop
fully until between 3 and 4 years of age.
The theory of encoding specificity suggests that our
retrieval cues in later life may not be adequate to recall
early memories.
We are still trying to understand why these memories are
not accessible.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia of Old Age


Some older people suffer from Alzheimer’s and other
dementias that impair attention and memory.
Up until recently, scientists have typically overstated the
vulnerability of healthy older people to memory loss.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia of Old Age

Most healthy people show little decline of memory in old
age
 Older adults show mild deficits on simple memory tasks.
 Older adults show greater deficits on more complex
tasks.
 The attentional aspects of their working memory appear
to be weaker – older adults have more difficulty handling
two tasks at once.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Amnesia of Old Age

People would like to know how to increase the chance of
having good memory function later in life:
 A healthy lifestyle with regular exercise, good diet and
limited use of alcohol.
 An intellectually stimulating life may be related to good
memory function as well.
Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, James W. Kalat
Chapter 7: Memory
Why do we forget?



Catastrophic loss of memory can only result from brain
damage or disease.
“Normal” forgetting is a product of mechanisms that are
usually adaptive.
It is probably true that remembering everything that
happened would be overwhelming and debilitating for
human beings.