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2014-2015 The Microscope TRANSPORT & MAKE MEMBRANES PHOTOSYNTHESIS CHLOROPLAST ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SER & RER) FORM SPINDLE IN ANIMAL CELLS PACKAGING IN MEMBRANES CENTRIOLES GOLGI APPARATUS INSTRUCTIONS FOR CELL REGULATE WHAT ENTERS THE CELL MAKE RIBOSOMES PLASMA MEMBRANE NUCLEUS & NUCLEOLUS ASSEMBLE PROTEINS STRUCTURE CYTOSKELETON: MICROFIBERS & MICROTUBULES RIBOSOME CELLULAR DIGESTION SUPPORT LYSOSOME CELL WALL ENERGY THROUGH RESPIRATION STORAGE & CLEANUP VACUOLE MITOCHONDRION Animal Cell Plant Cell Plant cells: One large vacuole Eukaryotic Autotrophic Have cell walls made of cellulose Have chloroplasts with chlorophyll for photosynthesis Form a cell plate during cytokinesis in the cell cycle What distinguishes a plant cell from most other cells? Nucleus? All eukaryotic cells have a nucleus with a nuclear membrane Most cells except for prokaryotic bacteria Mitochondria? have mitochondria for energy through the process of respiration Cell Wall? Plant cells, bacteria, and fungi have cell walls DNA? DNA is universal to all forms of life Plant cells and some autotrophic Protists Chloroplasts? have chloroplasts for the process of Photosynthesis Cellulose? Plant cells have cell walls made of cellulose What is the chemical equation for photosynthesis? 6O2 + C6H12O6 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy What type of cells would most likely have a lot of mitochondria? Muscle tissue sperm Requires cellular energy to move ions and large particles into and out of cells: endocytosis, exocytosis, protein pumps. Endocytosis Exocytosis Does not require cellular energy. Moves molecules DOWN a gradient: lipid diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion. summary DIFFUSION AND OSMOSIS DIFFUSION: Movement of particles in a fluid from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration = down the gradient. OSMOSIS: movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of higher concentration of water to an area of lower concentration of water. Cellular Tonicity CARBOHYDRATES Polymers of subunits of simple sugars Quick energy LIPIDS • Long term storage for energy • Insulation • Plasma membrane structure PROTEINS Polymers of amino acid subunits joined by peptide bonds and then folded into structure ENZYMES examples: Helicase Polymerase Primase Ligase An enzyme is a protein formed by the body that acts as a catalyst to cause a certain desired reaction. Enzymes bind a substrate in a particular orientation and chemical environment and assist the transformation of the substrate into a product. Enzymes are very specific. Most end in – “ase” Enzymes bind a substrate in a particular orientation and chemical environment and assist the transformation of the substrate into a product. The enzyme can then be reused. Enzymes are important because practically every process in the cell requires an enzyme to occur at a useful rate. ENZYMES LOWER THE ACTIVATION ENERGY ENZYMES SPEED UP THE RATE OF THE REACTION NUCLEIC ACIDS Deoxyribonucleic acid • A subunit of a Nucleic Acid • Sequence of nucleotides determines the gene and the protein to be assembled DNA RNA Chargaff’s Rule Complimentary base pairs Clues: Arbol = Tree Aunt = Tia Gato = Cat Galleta = Cookie 2 Replication Fork 3 Nucleotide CELL CYCLE & STAGES OF MITOSIS INTERPHASE REPLICATION PROPHASE CYTOKINESIS – DAUGHTER CELLS METAPHASE TELOPHASE ANAPHASE BASIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEIOSIS & MITOSIS Chromosome number is reduced: diploid to haploid Mitosis Meiosis • Chromosome number remains the same: diploid Chromosomes align to diploid at the metaphase Synapsis and crossing over occur Homologs align independently. plate (equator). Crossing over and independent assortment provides genetic diversity Sexual selection in creation of sperm and ovum Chromosomes separate Homologs separate. • Chromosomes are paired because one came from each parent. Daughter cells form Daughter cells form Daughter chromosomes separate Daughter nuclei are not genetically identical. In Oogenesis, only one daughter cell becomes the ovum. Daughter nuclei are genetically identical to parent cell. • Provides identical daughter cells for growth, repair Metaphase ANIMAL CELLS PLANT CELLS • Ribonucleic Acid • Deoxyribonucleic Acid • Ribose Sugar • Deoxyribose Sugar • Uracil instead of Thymine • Single Stranded • Double Stranded • Helical = spirals • Thymine instead of Uracil Forms of RNA mRNA Messenger RNA rRNA Ribosomal RNA tRNA Transfer RNA replication transcription translation EXONS INTRONS TELOMERES SUMMARY Ultraviolet light causes the breaking of bonds between purines and pyrimidines when two pyrimidine molecules of the same type (T or C) are adjacent to one another on a nucleotide. These pyrimidine dimers distort the sugar phosphate backbone and prevent proper replication and transcription. Chemicals from smoke and yellow and red dyes can cause FRAMESHIFT MUTATIONS in DNA as DNA polymerase copies the alter strand, adding or deleting base pairs around the bulge formed by the bound mutagen TYPES OF MUTATIONS Deletion Duplication Inversion Insertion Substitution (no diagram) Normal Human Karyotype. 23 pair = 46 Human Karyotype with a mutation, Trisomy 21, that causes Down’s Syndrome by nondysjunction GEL ELECTROPHORESIS Mutations in genes (changes in the codons, or changes in pieces of chromosomes ) can lead to serious diseases. EXAMPLE: the BRCA 1 and BRCA 2 (BReast CAncer) gene is a tumor suppressor gene. A mutation in this gene is inherited. This mutation is found in many cases of breast cancer and ovarian cancer. The presence of this mutated gene can lead to uncontrolled cell division which is called “cancer.” • • • • • • • • Mendelian Genetics: inheritance patterns that follow the ratios determined by dominant and recessive genes HOMOZYGOUS PUREBRED HETEROZYGOUS HYBRID DOMINANT RECESSIVE GENE ALLELES • • • • • • MONOHYBRID CROSS DIHYBRID CROSS MENDELIAN RATIOS PHENOTYPE GENOTYPE PEDIGREE Non-Mendelian Genetics: inheritance patterns that do not follow the ratios: sex linkage, incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles Alleles separate independently in meiosis producing haploid gametes for sexual selection Predict the outcome of crosses Female Gametes REPRESENT GAMETES BY FIRST LETTER OF DOMINANT GENE Homozygous recessive X Heterozygous Male Gametes rr X Rr Phenotype Ratio: 2::2 = 1::1 = 50 – 50 50% chance of red flower and 50 % white flower Genotype Ratio: 2::2 = 1::1 = 50 – 50 50% chance of heterozygotes and 50 % chance of homozygous recessive MONOHYBRID CROSS Yy X Yy Heterozygous X Heterozygous Phenotype Ratio: 3:1 75% chance yellow seed 25 % green seed Genotype Ratio: 1: 2: 1 25% chance of homozygous dominant 50% chance of heterozygous (hybrid) 25% chance of homozygous recessive DIHYBRID CROSS YyRr X YyRr Phenotype ratio: 9:3:3:1 9 smooth yellow 3 wrinkled yellow 3 smooth green 1 wrinkled green Both traits are expressed female male Sex-linked Genes Most sex linked genes occur on the X chromosome. Because a male is XY, if the recessive gene is on the X, it will be expressed, whereas in the XX female, it has more of chance being hidden by the dominant gene, making the female only a heterozygous “carrier.” P1 F1 F2 Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes. Several of these purposes include yielding bigger and better crops and meat, aiding in infertility problems, finding cures for diseases, etc.