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Source, Message and
Channel Factors
Source Attributes and Receiver
Processing Modes
Source Attribute
Process
Credibility
Internalization
Attractiveness
Identification
Power
Compliance
Source Credibility
Knowledge
Relationship
to Product
Skill
Expertise
Trustworthy
Character
Unbiased
Objective
Experts Lend Authority to an Appeal
Endorsement by a “Celebrity Expert”
Dave Thomas - effective spokesperson for Wendy’s
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Source Attractiveness
Similarity
Familiarity
Likeability
Resemblance
between the
source and
recipient of the
message
Knowledge of the
source through
repeated or
prolonged
exposure
Affection for the
source resulting
from physical
appearance,
behavior, or other
personal traits
Mere exposure effect
Risks of Using Celebrities
The celebrity may overshadow
the product being endorsed
The celebrity may be overexposed,
reducing his or her credibility
The target audience may not be
receptive to celebrity endorsers
The celebrity’s behavior may pose
a risk to the company
Brand Name, Celebrity, and Location Are
All Closely Linked in Meaning and Mood
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Modes of Celebrity Presentation
Endorsements
Identification
Testimonials
Celebrity
Representatives
Placements
Dramatizations
Undermining the Traditional Approach
Source Power
Perceived control
Source Power
Perceived concern
Perceived scrutiny
Recall
Recall and Presentation Order
Beginning
Middle
End
Message Argumentation
• One-sided Messages: only mention support arguments
– Most ads are one-sided – advertisers want to avoid introducing
any form of doubt or confusion.
– Works better with low NFC, uneducated and low involvement
audiences.
– Example: “Vote George Bush – he’ll keep our country safe.”
•
Two-sided Messages: mention both support and counterarguments
– Better for audience members who
•
•
•
•
are pre-disposed to disagree with the advocated position
have more education
are higher NFC
are higher-involvement
– Example: “Despite the ailing economy, George Bush is a good
president.”
Buckley’s Uses a Two-sided Message To
Advertise Its Cough Syrup
Buckley’s Uses a Humorous Two-Sided TV
commercial
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© 2007 McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Message Argumentation
• Refutational Appeals: A two-sided message which refutes
the opposing viewpoint.
 Allows for psychological inoculation against counterarguments made by self or others.
 Often used in comparative advertising
 Useful when you expect receivers to counter-argue your
message (usually in high NFC or high-involvement
situations).
 Example: “Bush’s opponents say Americans are unhappy with
the war against terror, but nothing could be further from the
truth. Studies show Americans feel safer than ever under
George Bush’s leadership. Vote for George Bush.”
Logical vs. Emotional Appeal
Appeal mostly to the
logical, rational minds
of consumers
Appeal mostly to the
feelings and emotions
of consumers
Appeal to both the logical,
rational minds of consumers and
to their feelings and emotions
Comparative Advertising
• Definition: Mentioning/showing the competitor in your ad by
way of comparison (and typically how we are better)
• History: Early 80’s FTC lifts the ban on CA to enhance the
provision of choice-making information to consumers.
• Legal issues: Advantages must be substantiated
• Used offensively (attack) or defensively (“fight back”)
• CA appeals used less nowadays
• The confusion aspect: Which brand was advertised???!,
though consumers may remember attributes advertised.
• Great for newly launched products with small (or zero) market
share that offer a distinct edge over the competition.
Comparative Advertising, cont.
• Political ads
– Negative information tends to
overshadow positive
information
– Typically more effective to
besmirch the opponent than to
praise one’s self.
• Exception: Negative tit-for-tat
exchanges (“mudslinging”)
usually wind up helping
neither candidate.
• Too much attacking results in
negative perceptions of the
attacking brand.
– Moral: Attack in moderation.
Miller Lite Uses Comparative Advertising to
Attack Bud Light
Fear Appeals
• Fear has facilitating effects and
inhibiting effects.
– Facilitation = motivation to
approach/avoid something
– Inhibition = discouragement
from approaching/avoiding
something
• Moderate fear appeals work
best by encouraging facilitation
and minimizing inhibition.
– Too much fear: the audience
tunes out the message
• Low credibility or elaboration of
harmful consequences is
hedonically unpleasant.
– Too little fear: the audience
isn’t motivated enough to do
anything.
Fear Appeals and Message Acceptance
Threat Plus Solution Gently Persuades
Humor Appeals
Pros and Cons of Using Humor
Pros
Cons
AidsAids
attention,
attention
awareness
and
and repeat
awareness
attention
Does not aid persuasion in
general
May aid retention of the
message
May harm recall and
comprehension
Creates a positive mood
and enhances persuasion
May harm complex copy
registration
May aid name and simple
copy registration
Does not aid source
Humor is not universal
credibility
May serve as a distracter,
reducing counterarguing
Is
Good
not “universal”
effective inhumor
bringing
is
hard
about
to produce!
sales
Company seen as clever –
carries over to products
May wear out faster than
non-humorous ads
Where humor works
Favorable
Unfavorable
 Creative personnel
 Management
 Radio and television
 Less suited for direct
mail and newspapers
 Consumer nondurables
 Corporate advertising
 Business services
 Industrial products
 Products that are
 Goods and services
of a sensitive nature
humorous
Where humor works
Audiences
Favorable
Audiences
Unfavorable
 Younger
 Older
 Well educated
 Less educated
 Males
 Females
 Professional
 Semi- or Unskilled
Self- versus Externally Paced Media
Self-Paced
Media
Externally Paced
Media
• Newspapers
• Radio
• Magazines
• Television
• Direct Mail
• Internet
vs.
Contextual Appeals
• Effects of media: “The media is the message”.
• Contextually Congruent vs. Contextually
Incongruent Advertising: Which works better?
– Contextually Congruent: An ad for Apple’s new IPad
appears in a computing magazine.
– Contextually Incongruent: An ad for Apple’s new
IPad appears in a sports magazine.
or
?
Contextual Appeals, cont.
• Show likeability correlates with ad
likeability, recall and awareness.
– Note that show likeability can result from show content that is
either negative (sad, disturbing, frustrating, etc.) or positive
(happy, uplifting, pleasant, etc).
• Positive shows produce more positive
reactions to advertising than negative shows.
• Many advertisers (i.e. Coke) avoid advertising
during shows that create negative moods
(“feel-bad” programming).
Question: Is it ever a good idea to advertise
during ”feel-bad” programming?
The Image of a Magazine Can Enhance an Ad