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Part I 倫理與科學
鄭先祐 (Ayo) 教授 國立臺南大學
環境 與生態學院 生態科學與技術學系
Part I 倫理與科學
Environmental ethics is not science, but involves
science in at least three respects.
1. The reasoning process used in science is helpful
for doing ethics.
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 T01. 道德哲學(moral philosophy)：Right 和 Good
2. Science gives us insight into nature.
 T02. 道德考量(moral consideration)：自然的價值
3. The public debate about environmental policy
relies on the economics to weigh the likely costs
of preserving natural resources against the
impact on economic growth.
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 T03. 倫理與經濟：公有財
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環境倫理學
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Part I 倫理與科學
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T00. 簡介：環境倫理與哲學
T01. 道德哲學(moral philosophy)：理性與感性
T02. 道德考量(moral consideration) ：倫理與科學
T03. 倫理與經濟：公有財 (The Common Good)
Part II 倫理推定(presumptions)的建構與驗證
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T04.
T05.
T06.
T07.
T08.
責任 (duty)：自然和未來世代
品性 (character)：生態美德 (Ecological Virtues)
關係：同理心與正直 (Empathy and Integrity)
權利 (rights)：人類與動物
後果 (consequences)：預測未來
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環境倫理學
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Part III 自然學習 (Learning from Nature)
T09.
 T10.
 T11.
 T12.
 T13.
 T14.
 T15.
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生活：可持續消費
環境政策：政府、機構和NGOs
健康環境：空氣與水
農業：土地與食物
公有地：適應式管理
城鄉生態學：綠色建構
氣候變遷：全球溫化
Ayo Env. Ethics 2011
Part I 倫理與科學
T01. 道德哲學 (moral philosophy)：
Right 和 Good
鄭先祐 (Ayo) 教授 國立臺南大學
環境 與生態學院 生態科學與技術學系
T01. 道德哲學：理性與感性
The word ethics(倫理) comes from the
Greek ethos, for custom(習俗). = 我們應該
有的習俗
Ethics(倫理) is moral philosophy (道德哲學).
Moral philosophy: 有五個途徑
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Duty (責任)
Rights (權利)
Character (品行)
Relationships (關係)
Consequences (後果)
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T01. 道德哲學：理性與感性
1.1 Right and Good
 1.2 Reasoning about our feelings (感性)
 1.3 Environmental Ethics (環境倫理)
 1.4 Learning from diverse theories
 1.5 Doing Ethics together
 Questions
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1.1 Right and Good
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Right action (正確行為)
I do my duty (我盡到我的責任)
 Act to protect a person’s rights (保護個人的權利)
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正確行為
Right action
責 任 (Duty)
權 利 (Rights)
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1.1 Right and Good
Being Good？(做好？)
 Being a good person (好人), we mean that a
person is “virtuous” (善良).
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品行 (Character)
做好
Being Good
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關係 (Relationships)
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1.1 Right and Good
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Right = 正確的 (對 或 錯) (判斷正負)
Right person for a job
 “Right” involve taking an action
 Duty (責任) + Rights (權利)
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Good = 好的 (好 或 壞) (相對比較)
Good person, good job, good science, good
society
 “Good” refers to a state of being.
 Character (品行) + Relationships (關係)
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1.2 Reasoning about our feelings
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Feelings(感性), emotion, sensitivity, intuitions
Ethics is “concerned with making sense of
intuitions(直覺)” about what is right and good.
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Emotion(情緒) is never truly divorced from decision
making.
Seeing the world with complete objectivity (完全
客觀) is not possible, as our observations affect
what we perceive (感知).
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Sensitivity(感受性) requires rationality(合理性) to
complete it, and vice versa.
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Reason(理性) + feelings(感性)
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We rely on our reason to guard against feelings
that may reflect a bias, or a sense of inadequacy, or
a desire simply to win an argument.
We rely on feelings to move us to act morally and
to ensure that our reasoning is not only logical(邏
輯) but also humane(人性).
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Reasoning (推理)
Reasoning(推理) is thinking (思考).
 Being rational (要有理性) refers to having a
reason, being reasonable means “being in
accord with reason” (合乎理性的狀態).
 In ethics, the goal of arguing is (or should
be) not to win, but to clarify our reasoning.
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Reasons vs. Rationalizations
理由 vs. 合理
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For example, if I own land that I wand to
log to make a profit.
Logging should be allowed because it will bring
jobs into the community. (rationalization)
 I want to logging because I will benefit from it
and think that the community will also benefit.
(two reasons for my position)
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Self-interest is rational(理性) and is not a
rationalization (合理).
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Unmasking rationalization
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Reasoning by analogy (類比)
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Deductive (演繹的) reasoning
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類比(類推)是將特定事物所附帶的訊息轉移到其他
特定事物之上的認知過程。舉例，原子中的原子核
以及由電子組成的軌域，可類比成太陽系中行星環
繞太陽的樣子。
「結論，可從前提的已知事實，「必然的」推理的
結果。如果前提為真，則結論必然為真。
Inductive (歸納的) reasoning
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提出證據支持假說，證據愈充份，假說愈可信靠。
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宗教信仰(Faith) vs. 理性(Reason)
For many people, morality and religious
faith go hand in hand.
 Moral philosophers, however, warn against
relying on religious arguments in ethics.
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God and religion are unnecessary for ethics.
Relying on reason, however, does not mean
that we should ignore all religious arguments.
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1.3 環境倫理
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The discipline of environmental ethics took off in
the 1970s, in response to the environmental
movement protesting air and water pollution.
Moral arguments for laws to protect the
environment initially emphasized the government’s
duty (moral and legal) to protect the public
welfare.
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Scientific evidence that environmental pollution is a
thereat to human health was used to argue that taking
acting to clean up the environment is rationally
justified (right).
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Moral community (道德社群)
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In traditional ethics our moral community
consists only of persons.
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The argument for a duty of mutual respects, and the
goal of personal and social happiness, each presume a
moral community that includes all humans.
In environmental ethics, however, nonanthropocentric advocates assert that our moral
community also includes other organisms,
endangered species, ecosystems, and even the
entire biosphere.
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1.3 環境倫理
人類中心的
Anthropocentric
(traditional)
倫理
Ethics
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非人類中心的
Non-Anthropocentric
(biocentric, ecocentric, holistic)
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1.4 Learning from diverse
theories
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We think people should be free to make their own
moral choices as long as no one else is harmed.
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In law, this is reflected in property laws and the right of
privacy.
Some land use choices, however, should be restrained by
governments to protect the environment and promote the public
good. Such as watering your lawn when there is a drought, or
clear-cutting forests on private land.
Moral relativist (道德相對論者)
Cultural relativism (文化相對論)
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Cultural values：If values are merely the customs of various
cultures, this would mean that values are whatever the majority in a
society believes is right.
If this were so, how could values change, as they obviously do?
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1.4 Learning from diverse
theories
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Changes in cultural values are evidence that
experience and ideas have led many people to
change their mind about what is right and good,
or better.
The nature of ethical reasoning presumes that some
actions and ways of being are better than others.
The presumptions(推定) of international human
rights law affirm that some actions, such as
torture, are absolutely wrong, and other human
rights, such as the presumption of innocence, are
absolutely right– and these rights should be
universally enforced.
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Ethical traditions
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Teleological (目的論的) ethics
Human nature：to seek happiness and the
civic virtues it requires, to be good persons
(Aristotle, Aquinas)
 Ethics is simply doing what yields the greatest
benefits, utilitarian
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 Consequential
tradition of ethics, actions resulting
in greater happiness are “right” (Bentham, Mill)
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Deontological (責任論的) ethics
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Human have the rational capacity to
discern(辨識) and do their duty (Kant)
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Ethical traditions
責任論的
倫理
Ethics
Deontological
目的論的
Teleological
好行為 (Kant)
Right action
做好 (Aristotle, Aquinas)
Being good
後果 (Bentham, Mill)
Consequences
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1.5 Doing Ethics together
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Our goal is doing ethics is to learn from diverse
ethical theories in order to bring our
understanding closer to the truth (真理) that we
cannot fully comprehend, as “all our reasoning
extrapolates from limited experience”.
Ethics, reasoning by analogy to the rule of law.
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Our society as a moral community by affirming ethical
presumptions (倫理推定) that should apply in creating
and enforcing laws.
No one is about the law and everyone is equal
before the law.
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Ethical rules (倫理規範)
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Human right (人權)：人性尊嚴 (human dignity)。
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Every person is included in the moral community,
defined by international human rights law.
The conduct of governments often falls short of
this high moral standard, but this fact does not
make striving to enforce the rule of law any less
important.
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It asserts ethical standards as legal presumptions (法律
推定), but also affirms that changing circumstances and
new insights may lead to modifying some of these
presumptions.
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The presumption of innocence
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The presumption of innocence (無罪推定) in
criminal law.
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What we take to be right or good is a presumption.
Our moral community is defined by our moral
presumptions and that those who challenge these
presumptions bear the burden of explaining why
some other action would be better.
Ethics underpins law, criticizes it, and becomes a
guide to what law ought to be.
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Rationalization and give reasons for doing our duty,
acting with exemplary character, respecting and
strengthening our relationships, and protecting rights.
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冷笑話 @_@#
不冷不好笑, 好笑就不冷
摘取自：http://a.coldjokes.com/p.php?p=495
台灣的法律規定：男人22歲才能結婚，
可是18歲就能當兵。
 這項法律，說明了3項觀念：
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一是殺人比做丈夫容易；
 二是過日子比打仗難；
 三是女人比敵人更難對付。
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Constructing ethical presumptions
責任 (Duty)
責任論的
倫理
Ethics
Deontological
目的論的
Teleological
好行為
Right action
權利 (Rights)
做好
Being good
品行
(Character)
後果
Consequences
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關係
(Relationships)
Part 2

倫理推定(ethical presumptions)的建構與驗證
T04.
 T05.
 T06.
 T07.
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責任：自然和未來世代
品性：生態美德 (Ecological Virtues)
關係：同理心與誠信 (Empathy and Integrity)
權利：人類與動物
T08. 後果：預測未來
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T04 Duty
In environmental ethics, reasons have been
given for affirming direct duties to nature.
 Science has confirmed the self-organizing
character of every organism and ecosystem,
might this analogy to human autonomy (人性
自主) justify ascribing moral consideration to
both?
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T05 character
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Most moral philosophers rely on duty and
consequential arguments to draw conclusions
about human responsibility for nature.
Yet, there is a tradition of thought affirming that
personal happiness(個人幸福), as well as good
and just society(好且正義的社會), can only be
realized (被實現) by good persons.
Environmental ethics encourage virtues such as
integrity (正直), gratitude(感恩), and frugality(儉樸).
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T06 Relationships
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Chapter 6 argues about caring relationships.
This concern is especially relevant for doing
environmental ethics, because our cultural
traditions have long relied on rationalizations to
excuse the abuse of women and nature.
 Might we now learn from nature, and also from
the experience of women, how to live more
ecologically?
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T07 Rights
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In law rights are supported by the secular (世俗的)
argument that individuals have natural rights as
autonomous and rational beings, and by the
religious affirmation that rights come from God.
International human rights law affirms the right
of every people to social and economic
development, and the right to animals but generally
do not grant them rights.
How are we to resolve the moral and legal
conflicts between protecting human rights and
preserving endangered species and the earth’s
ecosystems?
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Constructing ethical presumptions
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To explore these four patterns of reasoning to
construct ethical presumptions as to what we
should do and the kinds of persons we should be.
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To test these ethical hypotheses by predicting the likely
consequences of acting on them, to see if the possible
or probable outcomes confirm or challenge our reasoning.
Most of us already think much like this, although we
probably describe ethical presumptions as
feelings(感性) or intuitions (直覺).
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We have a sense of what we believe to be right that is
based on our experience, which we explain to others by
referring to our feelings and the reasons that support
these feelings.
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clarify our moral reasoning
Also, we usually consider the likely
consequences of acting on our sense of
what is right, before we make a decision and
carry it out.
 Doing ethics is a way of trying to clarify our
moral reasoning(道德理性).
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Testing ethical presumptions
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To test an ethical hypothesis
(presumption) by predicting the likely
consequences of acting on it.
If we find evidence that seems to “falsify” our
hypothesis”, we should take this into account.
 Evidence that seems to verify our presumption
should be taken as supporting it.
 As with the rule of law, some ethical
presumptions may be stronger than others.
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Stronger presumption
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For example, consider the presumption of
innocence. To overturn this moral and legal
presumption, the law requires the state to
present evidence that is beyond all
reasonable doubt.
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In a civil lawsuit, however, where one party has
accused the other of breaking an agreement, the
burden of proof on the party bringing the action
requires showing only that the claim is supported
by a preponderance(優勢) of the evidence.
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T08 consequences
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In predicting the likely consequences of
acting on a moral presumption.
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Affirming that we should do whatever brings
about the greatest good for the greatest number
of persons has been an effective way of
promoting political and economic freedom, and
today this seems to be the dominant reasoning in
environmental ethics.
Both natural science and social science utilize
consequential methods of reasoning.
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Review Questions
1. Explain the difference between teleological and deontological ethics:
Give examples.
2. What reasons might you give for not littering? Are any of your reasons
religious? How would you argue that your reasons are justified or are
not rationalizations?
3. Explain why the rule of law be helpful for doing ethics and give an
example.
4. Identify a conflict of duties concerning use of the environment, and give
a reason for supporting the action you think is best. Who should be
involved in resolving this conflict?
5. What are the likely consequences of acting on the presumption that you
constructed in the previous question? Explain why your predictions
weigh against taking the action or confirm it.
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問題與討論
Ayo NUTN website:
http://myweb.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/