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Mk. Analisis Ekosistem
ANALISIS
KETAHANAN
EKOSISTEM
Diabstraksikan: smno.psdl.pdkl.ppsub.2012/13
BIODIVERSITY
&
SUSTAINABILITY
Biodiversity
1. The term “biodiversity” is a
contraction of the phrase “biological
diversity”.
2. Biodiversity means the richness and
variety of life - of genes, species and
ecosystems.
Biodiversity
• Biodiversity maintains the health of the earth
and its people.
• It provides us with food and medicine and
contributes to our economy.
• It tells us a lot about the health of the
biosphere.
• The greater the variety of species, the
healthier the biosphere.
The more links in a food web, the more stable it is.
Sustainability
1. The ability to maintain ecological processes over
long periods of time.
2. Sustainability of an ecosystem is the ability of
that ecosystem to maintain its structure and
function over time in the face of external stress.
Sustainability
1. Is strongly linked to ecosystem health.
2. The more sustainable an ecosystem is, the
healthier it is because it is able to “deal” with
external stress better (i.e. limiting factors).
Biodiversity & Sustainability
1. The biodiversity of an ecosystem contributes to
the sustainability of that ecosystem.
2. Higher/more biodiversity = more sustainable
3. Lower/less biodiversity = less sustainable
4. High biodiversity in an ecosystem means that
there is a great variety of genes and species in
that ecosystem.
Biodiversity & Sustainability
1. A great variety of genes and species means that
the ecosystem is better able to carry out natural
processes in the face of external stress.
2. Thus, the ecosystem is more sustainable.
Biodiversity and Sustainability
1. The more sustainable an ecosystem is, the
better it is for the environment and for people.
2. People use ecosystems as sources of food,
medicine and economy.
3. Thus, it is in everyone’s best interest to increase
the sustainability of ecosystems.
4. How can we do this?
Contohnya:
• The greater the variety of genes and species of
fish, plants and animals in the Lake Winnipeg
ecosystem, the more biodiversity.
• Higher biodiversity will increase the ecosystem’s
sustainability
• Why is this important?
Whitefish
Northern pike Walleye
What is ecosystem stability?
•
The vast majority of natural ecosystems experience regular environmental change, or disturbances.
•
Most ecologists describe ecosystem stability as the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its structure
and function over long periods of time and despite disturbances.
•
Ecosystem structure includes physical and geological structures of the landscape, the number and
diversity of species present, the population sizes of those species, and the ways in which these
populations interact.
•
Ecosystem function refers to processes such as water and nutrient cycling and biomass productivity
that the ecosystem provides.
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
Resistance and Resilience
• There are two main components to ecosystem stability: resistance
and resilience.
• An ecosystem displays resistance if keeps its structure and continues
normal functions even when environmental conditions change.
• An ecosystem displays resilience if, following a disturbance, it
eventually regains its normal structure and function.
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
• Ecosystems that show a high degree of stability may
have different combinations of resistance and resilience.
• Research has shown that species diversity is often the
key to both ecosystem resistance and resilience.
• An ecosystem rich in biodiversity will likely be more
stable than one whose biodiversity is low.
1. Infer If an ecosystem has low biodiversity, is it more or less stable than an ecosystem
of high biodiversity?
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
How does environmental change affect
ecosystem stability?
• Communities respond to environmental change in ways that reflect
the responses of the species and populations in the community.
• Species respond to environmental change in ways that enable them
to maintain homeostasis.
• Populations respond in ways that reflect the success or failure of
members of the population to survive and reproduce.
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
• Changing environmental conditions can cause the decline of local
biodiversity. If this happens, an ecosystem’s resistance and/or
resilience may decline. The end result is that the ecosystem loses
stability.
• Ecosystems that are less stable may not be able to respond to a
normal environmental disturbance, which may damage ecosystem
structure, ecosystem function, or both.
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
How does natural environmental change affect
ecosystem stability?
1. Fires, heavy storms, and natural climate change can cause
major changes in local populations of plants and animals.
2. A decline in natural biodiversity can make an ecosystem less
stable.
2. Apply Concepts What is one example of a local natural
environmental change? How did it impact ecosystem stability?
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
How does environmental change caused by human
actions affect ecosystem stability?
1. Humans affect ecosystem stability in many ways,
including habitat loss, introduction of nonnative species,
release of pollution into food webs, and contribution to
climate change.
2. Ecosystems are frequently destroyed for agricultural
activity and
urban development. Clearing patches of habitat can split
ecosystems into pieces, a process called habitat
fragmentation.
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
• Remaining pieces of habitat become habitat “islands”
surrounded by a different habitat. The smaller a habitat
island is, the fewer species can live there, and the smaller
their populations can be.
• A keystone species is one that has a strong and/or widereaching impact on a community’s stability. If a keystone
species declines in number, the ecosystem becomes much
less stable.
3. Predict Sea otters, a keystone species, eat sea urchins, which in turn eat kelp.
In the 1990s, sea otter populations off the coast of Alaska declined because
orcas ate large numbers of otters. What effect did this have on the sea otters’
ecosystem?
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
• Humans sometimes introduce organisms into a new habitat,
where
it can become invasive and threaten biodiversity and
ecosystem structure.
• An invasive species is a nonnative species that spreads widely
in a community. Nonnative species become invasive if their
new surroundings lack natural population checks such as
predators or competitors.
• Invasive species usually cause local native biodiversity to
decline and therefore affect ecosystem stability.
4. Contrast What is the difference between nonnative species and
invasive species?
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
• Many pollutants, including pesticides and acid rain, impact plant and animal
populations. These changes, in turn, threaten biodiversity.
• Organisms are adapted to their environments and have specific tolerance
ranges to conditions such as temperature. If conditions change beyond an
organism’s tolerance, the organism must move to another location or face
extinction.
• Increases in Earth’s average temperatures could affect ecosystem structures
and functions.
• Scientists are not yet sure how predicted changes in global climate within the
next several decades will affect ecosystem stability worldwide.
. Sumber: www.aisd.net/aisd/Portals/73/1/a/.../12F%20Ecosystem%20Stability.ppt
Biodiversitas & Stabilitas Ekosistem
Biodiversitas & Stabilitas Ekosistem
1. Which organism will have the lowest
energy? Explain how you know.
2. Which organism will have the highest
biomass? Explain how you know.
3. If the blue bird consumes 100 J of energy,
how much energy will the eagle be able to
get from eating the blue bird?
4. CHALLENGE! If the grass provided 367 J of
energy, how much energy will the blue bird
get? What about the eagle that eats the bird?
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
Low or High Biodiversity?
Sumber: smno.agroforestry.hutanjati.saradan.2012
Benefits of Biodiversity
• Key Point #1: There are three main
benefits to biodiversity
–Many people find nature beautiful
–Provides medicines
–Preserves ecosystem stability
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
Ecosystem stability… What?
• Stable = things stay the same
• Key Point #2: High biodiversity = stable
ecosystem, low biodiversity = unstable
ecosystem
– If an ecosystem is unstable, one small change could
cause many species to die
– If an ecosystem is stable, it does not change easily
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
Ms. S, show me another way to write
that!
• Key Point #2: High biodiversity = stable
ecosystem, low biodiversity = unstable
ecosystem
– CHANGE!
• Lots of species die  Unstable
• Most species don’t change  Stable
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
This food web has low biodiversity
Rabbits eat grass. Foxes eat rabbits
Foxes
Rabbit
Grass
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
Jaring-jaring Makanan dengan Biodiversitas Rendah
A disturbance hits…
A drought happens and kills all the grass.
Foxes
Rabbit
Grass
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
Jaring-jaring Makanan dengan Biodiversitas Rendah
• What happens to the foxes?
How many species do we have left?
Foxes
0!
BIG change?
Rabbit
Grass
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
Jaring-jaring Makanan dengan Biodiversitas Tinggi
Let’s add a few more species to our original ecosystem
Lettuce
Foxes
Rabbit
Chickens
Grass
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
Jaring-jaring Makanan dnegan Biodiversitas tinggi
A disturbance hits…
A drought happens and kills all the grass.
Foxes
Lettuce
Rabbit
Chickens
Grass
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
Jaring-jaring Makanan dnegan Biodiversitas tinggi
• What happens to the foxes?
Population size decreases… a little
Foxes
Lettuce
BIG change?
Rabbit
Chickens
Grass
Sumber: sanacorescience.wikispaces.com/.../6.3+Biodiversity+and+Ecosystem+Sta...
MILLENNIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT
An international scientific assessment of the consequences of
ecosystem changes for human well-being:
– Modeled on the IPCC
– Providing information requested by:
•
•
•
•
•
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD)
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
other partners including the private sector and civil society
– With the goals of:
• stimulating and guiding action to conserve ecosystems and enhance
their contribution to human well-being
• building capacity to undertake integrated ecosystem assessments and to
act on their information
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
TANTANGAN MANUSIA
• Considerable progress has been made in fighting
poverty
– life expectancy increasing
– infant mortality decreasing
– agricultural production increasing, etc.
• Major problems remain
–
–
–
–
1.2 billion people live on less than $1 per day
1 billion people do not have access to clean water
More than 2 billion people have no access to sanitation
1.3 billion are breathing air below the standards considered
acceptable by WHO
– 700 million people suffer from indoor air pollution due to
biomass burning
. Sumber: The
Millennium
Ecosystem
Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
Source:
Serageldin, 2002,
Science 296:54
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
Why a Multi-Scale Assessment?
Expect that findings at any scale of a multi-scale assessment will
be improved by information and perspectives from other scales
Rationale
Global Assessment
– Characteristic scale of
processes
– Greater resolution at
Regional
Users
Regional
Development
Banks, etc.
smaller scales
– Independent validation of
conclusions
National
National
Government
– Response options
matched to the scale
Local
Community
where decision-making
Local
takes place
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
Ecosystem Services:
The benefits people obtain from ecosystems
Provisioning
Regulating
Cultural
Goods produced or provided by
ecosystems
Benefits obtained from
regulation of ecosystem
processes
Non-material benefits obtained
from ecosystems
• spiritual
• recreational
• aesthetic
• inspirational
• educational
• communal
• symbolic
• food
• fresh water
• fuel wood
• fiber
• biochemicals
• genetic resources
• climate regulation
• disease regulation
• flood regulation
• detoxification
Supporting
Services necessary for production of other ecosystem services.
• Soil formation
• Nutrient cycling
• Primary production
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
ECOSYSTEM CHANGES AFFECT HUMAN WELL-BEING
Security is affected both by changes in provisioning services, which affect
supplies of food and other goods and the likelihood of conflict over declining
resources, and by changes in regulating services, which could influence the
frequency and magnitude of floods, droughts or other catastrophes. It can also
be affected by changes in cultural services as, for example, when their loss
contributes to the weakening of social relations in a community.
These changes in turn affect material well-being, health, freedom and choice
and good social relations.
Human well-being can be enhanced through sustainable human interactions
with ecosystems supported by necessary instruments, institutions,
organizations, and technology. Creation of these through participation and
transparency may contribute to freedoms and choice as well as to increased
economic, social, and ecological security. By ecological security, we mean the
minimum level of ecological stock needed to ensure a sustainable flow of
ecosystem services.
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
Isu-isu yg berhubungan dg Ketahanan
Food and water insecurity is a
second primary area of concern in
changes in ecosystems services.
Multiple domains of vulnerability
exist in food security regimes and
livelihood systems.
Production, economic exchanges,
and nutrition are key elements as
well as more structural issues
associated with the political
economy.
Examples:
• Desertification in China (sand
storms)
• Eutrofication in western coastal
ecosystems
• Long-term droughts and rainfall
variability in the Sahel
• Crop failures in rural Africa
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
Framework Examines Multiple Drivers as they Influence
Ecosystems and Human Well-being
Driver
Response
Human
Impact
Climate Land Cover Biodiversity Nutrient
Change
Change
Loss
Loading
Climate Change
Energy
Sector
Biodiversity
Health
Food
Supply
Economics
IPCC
Water
Social
Etc.
Ecosystems
Health
Economics
Social
Millennium Assessment
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
Source: Ayensu et al. 1999. Science 286:685-686.
Framework allows examination of trade-offs among services
Food supply and
demand
Water availability
Freshwater supply and
demand
Water use and nutrient loss
Erosion and
water flow
Forest product supply and
demand
Climate
change
Biodiversity
loss
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
KERANGKA KONSEPTUAL
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
At a global level there have been substantial improvements in
human wellbeing since the 1950s.
World population has almost tripled, but the ability to support that
population expanded even more. Life expectancy increased and
infant mortality rates declined almost everywhere.
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
More important, however, has been the enormous expansion in
human capital.
Literacy rates are a proxy for the number of people with at least
primary education. Literacy has increased everywhere.
Secondary and tertiary education rates have also expanded greatly.
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
The growth in human well-being over the last several decades has come in
large part because of increases in provisioning services from several major
ecosystems.
Over the last few decades, these changes have been the largest in cultivated
systems, with the biggest changes in this time period coming from increased
intensification rather than from large-scale conversion of land to agriculture,
and coastal and marine systems, from harvesting fish resources and the
addition of nutrients in coastal regions as pollutants.
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
Preliminary findings
Nutrient cycling is one of the services that has been profoundly affected by
human activities over long periods of time, with a significant acceleration in
the last few decades.
Most of the impact on nutrient cycling has come from the large-scale
agricultural changes and its inputs over the last decades. Therefore, most of
the tradeoff of increased production against other non-provisioning
services, such as nutrient cycling, can be tracked by focusing on areas where
agriculture has changed substantially.
In the same vein, biodiversity is critical to the performance of all the
buffering mechanisms that ensure an efficient use and cycling of nutrients.
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
Temuan-temuan Pendahuluan
Ecosystem changes due to trade-offs for enhancing provisioning
services have played an important role in the emergence or
resurgence of infectious diseases.
Ecological processes have included: niche invasion, biodiversity
loss or animal species extinction, habitat degradation, loss of
predator species, or alteration or replacement of animal host
population densities.
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
It is well established that losses in biodiversity are occurring
globally at all levels, from ecosystems through species,
populations and genes.
The current rate of species extinction is higher than at any time in
the last 65 million years, and there is an increasing trend for
conversion of naturally occurring, species-rich ecosystems into
more intensively managed habitats, with reduced biodiversity.
The extent of loss of genetic diversity is less well understood,
although recorded losses in agricultural genetic diversity are
widespread.
. Sumber: The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Connecting ecosystems and their services with environmental and
social security. Rik Leemans. Wageningen University
. Sumber: smno.hutanjati.carbuan.2012