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Chapter 12
Recovery and Rebirth: The
Age of the Renaissance
Meaning & Characteristics of the Italian
Renaissance
Renaissance – french, literally means “rebirth”
Refers to the cultural movement that began in Italy between 13501550
– Term first used in 1860 by Swiss historian, Jacob Burckhardt
Sometimes considered the “birthplace of the modern world”
Renaissance Italy was an age of recovery from a 14th century that
saw the Black Death, political disorder, and economic recession
Recovery was accompanied by a rediscovery of the cultures of
classical antiquity (Greece & Rome)
Emphasis also began to shift from the Church as the center of life
to the individual and individual achievement
– Leon Battista Alberti – “Men can do all things if they will.”
High regard for human dignity and human potential led to the social
ideal of the universal person (l’uomo universale)
The Making of Renaissance Society
Economic Recovery
14th cent.- Italian merchants had expanded their trade lines along
the Atlantic seaboard
– Hard hit by plague , Italian merchants suffered while the Hanseatic
League (northern Europe) prospered
early 15th cent.- silting of the port at Bruges caused the Hansa to
enter a slow decline
– This allowed Italian trade to recover dramatically, especially in Venice
Italian city-states would remain powerful until well into the 16th
century
Industries Old & New
While Venice prospered through trade, Florence began to rise
through industrial power
Wool, silk-making, glassware, metalworking industries and a stable
economy made Florence one of the wealthiest cities in Italy.
The economy was thanks to advanced banking procedures that were
not in use elsewhere
– a system of checking accounts
– lines of credit
– new accounting methods
By the 15th century, House of Medici was the greatest bank in Europe
– Branches in Venice, Milan, Rome, Bologna, Pisa (Italy), London
(England), Avignon, Bruges, Lyons (France) & Antwerp (Belgium)
Medici were also principle bankers of the papacy
– meaning big profits & influence in the papal court
Medici family basically controlled “republican” Florentine govt. 14341494
Social Changes in the Renaissance
Social structure basically same as Middle Ages: 3 fundamental estates
– 1st Estate – Clergy
– 2nd Estate – Nobility
– 3rd Estate – peasants & city dwellers
Moving into the 15th century, a reconstruction of the aristocracy was
well under way.
– Nobility constituted 2-3% of a given country’s population, but controlled
society
Medieval lords had been the knights that served to lead the king’s
army, by this time, more was expected of the noble lords
– Still served as military officers and held important political posts
– more was expected, as explained in Castiglione’s The Book of the
Courtier (p 317)
– Nobility would follow these guidelines for hundreds of years
3rd Estate accounted for more than 90% of Europe’s population
– Urban poverty increased dramatically during this period
Slavery had diminished in the early Middle Ages, but rebounded in
the 14th century
– adults served as workers for urban craftsmen
– girls served as nursemaids
– boys as playmates of aristocratic children
Family in Renaissance Italy
Family referred to: parents, children, servants (if wealthy),
grandparents, widowed mothers, & unmarried sisters
families related and bearing the same surname lived close and may
dominate an entire neighborhood
your family name was very important
– A crime committed by one member, reflected on the entire family
– retaliation by an offended family would be bloody & involve a large
number of people
Marriage
Usually arranged by parents to strengthen family or business ties
Bride’s family had to pay a dowry, based on each family’s social
standing
– larger dowry indicated bride (and family) move up in social status
Family Unit
Father – center of family makes all decisions, authority absolute
Mother – main duty was to bear & raise children
Children – had no rights until adulthood & did not become adult until
father formally announced emancipation
Italian States in the Renaissance
By the mid 15th cent. 5 major
powers dominated the Italian
penninsula: Milan, Venice,
Florence, the Papal States &
Naples
northern Italy was split between
Venice & Milan
1447 – Francesco Sforza, a
condottieri (mercenary general),
turned on his employers &
conquered Milan, becoming it’s
new Duke
Through most of the 15th cent,
Florence was ruled by the
Medici family
– Cultural center of Renaissance
In the 14th cent., the pope lived
in France, allowing some cities
to break away from the Papal
States
Backward kingdom in southern
Italy & Sicily, shared little in the
glory of the Renaissance
Independent City-States & the Role of Women
Outside of the major states, there was a number of independent citystates ruled by powerful families
– Mantua, Ferrara, & the most famous was Urbino
Urbino was ruled by Frederigo de Montefeltro (duke 1444-82) and
under his rule, the city prospered
Unlike many rulers or condottiere, he was honest & beloved by his
subjects
Women in the City-States
In the smaller courts of the cities, noblewomen had much more
authority
Battista Sforza (wife of Duke Montefeltro) was well educated and
responsible for attracting many artists to the court of Urbino
– Since Montefeltro was a condottiere, his wife served as governor in
his absence
In Mantua, Isabella d’Este had a reputation as an effective ruler &
clever negotiator before & after her husband died
Warfare in Italy
Fragmentation of Italy led to a balance of power that kept any one
state from getting too strong
1454 – The Peace of Lodi
– ended nearly 5 decades of fighting between the states
– created alliance system (Florence, Milan, Naples vs. Venice, Papal States)
– failed to foster lasting cooperation or common foreign policy
European kingdoms got stronger, Italy pulled into national struggles
Balance of power broke down, the Italian Wars began
1494 – feeling politically isolated, Ludovico Sforza (Milan) invited
Charles VIII (France) to intervene in Italian politics
Charles marched 30,000 men into Italy & occupied Naples
The other states turned to Ferdinand of Aragon (Spain)
– Fighting between France & Spain continued for nearly 30 years
1527 - Spain sacked Rome, controls Italian penninsula
Italy would not achieve independence or national unification until
1870
Birth of Modern Diplomacy
Medieval ambassadors served the idea of peace
in general, not a specific lord
Modern diplomatic system was a product of
Renaissance Italy
Since the small states were constantly
threatened by neighbors, resident diplomats
were sent to be ambassadors & spies
– During the Italian Wars, this concept spread
throughout Europe
Also marks the beginning of modern politics
where the interests of the state supersede
everything all other concerns
Machiavelli and the New Statecraft
b.1469 – d.1527
Entered politics 4 years after
Medici were driven from power
by French in 1494
secretary for Florentine Council
of Ten, served as diplomat
exiled after Medici family
regained control in 1512
Lived on a small estate outside
of Florence
Wrote books on politics since
his political career was over
– The Prince (1513)
– The Art of War (1521)
The Prince
The Prince written in 1513, not published until 1532
After publishing, Machiavelli posthumously received a
reputation for being unscrupulous
focused on acquisition and expansion of political power &
restoring and maintaining order in his time
– Felt that political system was corrupt & feared unfit rulers
flying in the face of medieval political theorists, basically said
that Christian moral principles had no place in politics (bottom
left p.324)
a prince’s attitude toward power must be based on his
understanding of human nature (self-centered)
The prince acts on behalf of the state & must be willing to let
his conscience sleep
– “The ends justifies the means.”
Poses important questions to the prince like
“Is it better to be loved than feared ?” (box p.325)
Italian Renaissance Humanism
individualism & secularism – two most important characteristics
of the Italian Renaissance
– most noticeable in intellectual & artistic realms
humanism – most important literary movement associated w/ the
Renaissance
– intellectual movement based on the classical works of Greece & Rome
– Humanists studied the liberal arts
– many humanists served as humanities teachers, others served as
secretaries in the state govt. or courts of Italian princes or popes
Emergence of Humanism
Petrarch (1303-1374), father of Italian Ren. Humanism
Became a writer instead of a lawyer
1st intellectual to regard the Middle Ages as a period of darkness
sought lost classical manuscripts
– his preoccupation w/ classics led humanists to use works of Cicero &
Virgil as models
humanist beliefs became related to Florentine civic pride, giving
rise to what is now called civic humanism
– earlier humanists rejected public & family life for one of solitude
– In busy Florence, intellectuals began to take a new role, using
Roman statesman, Cicero, as their model
– believed it was the duty of the individual live an active life for
one’s state
One only grows morally & intellectually through fulfilling this duty
Humanism flourished in Florence because of wealthy patrons like
Cosimo de’ Medici who founded the Platonic Academy
translator Marsilio Ficino dedicated his life to exposing people to
Plato’s philosophies through his Neo-Platonism (p327)
Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494)
– wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man (p 328)
– echoes Alberti when it comes to unlimited human potential
– “To him is granted to have whatever he chooses, to be whatever
he wills.”
Education in the Renaissance
Ren. Humanists believed that human beings could be drastically
changed by education
New classes, secondary schools & universities developed all
over Italy
– Most famous founded in 1423 in Mantua by Vittorino da Feltre
At the core of academic training were “liberal studies” or
“humanities”
– History, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar
and logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy, and music
– humanist education would produce individuals that were wise,
virtuous, and would possess the rhetorical skill to convince others to
do the same
– small number of lower-class children were provided free educations
– schools primarily geared to education of the elite (future leaders)
females were largely absent from these schools
– encouraged to learn all subjects except mathematics & rhetoric
Humanism and History
The sense of the classical period, “dark” ages, & their own period
led historians to a new sense of chronology or periodization in
history
Humanists also secularized history, during the Middle Ages
historians had been monks and thus history was viewed through
theology
Causation in history changed
– Middle Ages – something happened because of God
– Renaissance – stressed causation by political & cultural forces
Impact of Printing
the printing press made immediate impact on Europe
– biggest advance was movable metal type
– Development culminated in 1455, Johann Gutenberg began using
his new printing press
the “Gutenberg Bible” was the first book printed on a European press
By 1500, over 1000 presses throughout Europe & 40,000 titles in
print
The Artistic Renaissance
“Hence the painter will produce pictures of
small merit if he takes for his standard the
pictures of others, but if he will study from
natural objects he will bear good
fruit…Those who take their standard from
any one but nature…weary themselves in
vain.” – Leonardo da Vinci
imitation of nature was a
Renaissance artist’s primary goal
many Renaissance works were
religious in subject, but the goal
was to make these figures look
more realistic than medieval
predecessors
because of the wealthy patrons in
Florence, many famous artists
either came to the city to work or
were from the area
Renaissance Artists
Masaccio (1401-1428)
copied the fresco style of
Giotto from the 14th century
– produced the first
“masterpiece” of the
Renaissance The Tribute
Money
Donatello’s (1386-1466)
David was the first freestanding nude since Roman
antiquity
Sandro Botticelli’s (14451510) interest in Greek &
Roman mythology (like The
Birth of Venus) show a
definite break from medieval
artistic values
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
born in Vinci, a small
town outside Florence
illegitimate son of a
wealthy lawyer & a
peasant girl from Vinci
lived with his mother,
but father paid for best
education he could
afford
multi-talented: artist,
sculptor, architect,
inventor, poet,
mathematician,
scientist, dancer, &
singer
while he is known for his
artistic contributions, he
considered himself more
of an inventor & scientist
overabundance of talents
caused him to take his
artistry lightly
called the genius of the
Renaissance not for what
he did, but for what he
dreamed of doing
recorded in his Notebooks
– his inventions were too
advanced for the time’s
technology
– sketches of flying
machines, helicopters,
submarines, elevators,
machine guns & turbine
engines
Michelangelo Buonarotti (1475 - 1564)
born in village of Caprese, grew
up in Florence
his best teachers were the
masterpieces around him:
studied works of Masaccio,
Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, &
Donatello
continually sought challenge:
– preferred hard physical labor of
marble sculpting to painting
– when painting, he chose poses
very difficult to draw
considered the male nude the
foremost subject in art
1490 - 92: studied in the
sculpture garden of Lorenzo the
Magnificent w/ Bertold Giovanni
(Donatello’s teacher)
was also a believer in NeoPlatonism
Raphael Sanzio (1483 – 1520)
born in Urbano, Italy
trained under his father, until
father died in 1494
moved to Florence in 1505 &
worked there until 1508
studied the styles of both
Michelangelo & da Vinci while
in Florence
while in Florence, he painted
several madonnas in a style
that he became famous for
Raphael left Florence for
Rome in 1508 & by 1509,
Pope Julius II had him working
in the Vatican
Raphael’s last work was The
Transfiguration
– left unfinished at his death
(died on his birthday: April
6, 1520)
Artists & Social Status
artists begin their career as apprentices to masters
talented apprentices might become master & open a
workshop
patronage of wealthy upper-class played important role
– determined content & purpose of pieces commissioned
by end 15th cent., a transformation in the social position
of artists occurred
–
–
–
–
seen as artistic geniuses
artists become heroes
praised more for creativity that skill as craftsmen
Michelangelo referred to as “il Divino” (Divine One)
Eccentricities & questionable actions were ignored
– mental, social issues ignored; crimes often did little to hamper
popularity
as status increased, so did profits
welcomed as equals into the circles of the political &
intellectual elite
Is the most famous painting in
the world a practical joke?
da Vinci was rumored to have a
very strange sense of humor
Some people theorize that
Leonardo used himself as the
model for the Mona Lisa
Researchers have recently used
computers to superimpose a chalk
self-sketch over the painting and
the eyes, points of the cheek
bones, nose, and chin all lined up
exactly
The European State in the Renaissance
second half of 15th century – deterioration of society due to several
factors had ended
– Black Death & Hundred Years War
Monarchs tried to reestablish centralized power
– “Renaissance States” or “new monarchies”
most prominent examples – France, England & Spain
France
Hundred Years War left France in ruins,difficult for kings to assert
authority
–
–
–
–
–
depopulation
desolate farmland
ruined commerce
unruly nobility
but established a strong national feeling of a common enemy (England)
Charles VII (1422-1461) used this to strengthen the monarchy
– Established a royal army composed of cavalry & archers
– got permission of Estates General to levy annual property tax (taille)
w/o control of taxation, E.G. much less powerful
Louis XI (1461-1483) retained the taille as a permanent tax
– known as “the Spider” for his devious ways
– Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy tried to create an independent kingdom
between France & Germany
– When Charles died fighting the Swiss in 1477, Louis absorbed his holdings
– Louis XI created a base for later development of a strong monarchy in
France
England
Cost & loss of manpower from Hundred Years War affected England
further turmoil: War of the Roses broke out in 1450’s
– House of Lancaster (red rose) challanged the House of York (white rose)
– 1485 – Henry Tudor def. Yorkist king Richard III (1483-85)
Establishes the Tudor Dynasty
Becomes Henry VII (1485-1509) reduced internal conflict & established
strong monarchy
– abolished private armies of the nobility
– established the Court of Star Chamber (no juries, torture could be used)
Managed state finances expertly
– very effective in collecting taxes on the crown lands, judicial fees & fines
– used diplomacy to avoid costly wars
– avoided calling Parliament regularly to ask for funding
Won the support of the gentry & middle class
– avoided heavy taxation
– enabled him to leave England w/ stable govt. & strengthen the monarchy itself
Unification of Spain (p 339)
Strongest Spanish kingdoms
were Castile & Aragon
Ferdinand of Aragon & Isabella of
Castile married in 1469
– each kingdom retained govt. &
culture
– reorganized the military around a
strong infantry
– secured the right to select
important church officials in
Spain
Persued strict religious uniformity
– Jews & Muslims persecuted
– Inquisition introduced in 1478
– 1492 – Jewish people expelled
from Spain
– 1502 – Muslims expelled from
Castile
Struggle in Eastern Europe
Poland
– kings could never establish strong monarchy
– Nobles had right to elect the king & reduced peasantry to serfdom by 1511
Hungary
– had a strong, well-organized bueracracy
– became a eastern European power until the king’s death in 1490
Russia
– Ivan III (1462-1505) created principality of Moscow & broke free of Mongol
rule in 1480
Ottoman Empire
– Byzantine Empire served as buffer between Christian West & Muslim East
for centuries
– Ottoman Turks conquered Balkans in late 14th cent.
– 1453 – Ottomans conquer Constantinople, end Byzantine empire
– 1480 – Turks conquer Serbia, Bosnia, & Albania
– Late 15th cent. – Ottomans threaten Hungary, Austria, Bohemia
– 16th cent. – Holy Roman Emp. Charles V becomes bitter enemy of Turks
Decline of Byzantine Empire
600 A.D.
750 A.D.
1403 A.D.
The Church in the Renaissance
Heresy & Reform
Wyclif and Lollardy
John Wyclif attacked corruption in the Church & medieval Christian
practices
believed the Bible should be a Christian’s sole authority
rejected all practices not mentioned in scripture
– pilgrimages, veneration of saints, most medieval church rituals
followers referred to as Lollards
Hus & Hussites
Lollard ideas spread to Bohemia & reinforced the ideas of John
Hus
urged elimination of worldliness & corruption and attacked power
of papacy in Catholic church
The Council of Constance summoned Hus to speak his grievances
– arrested, convicted of heresy, & burned at the steak (1415)
Attempts to eradicate heresy only seemed to cause more problems
Reform was even less successful that reduction of heresy
2 reform decrees passed by the Council of Constance (1414-1418)
– Sacrosancta – general council received authority form God, all
christians answered to its authority, even the pope
– Frequens – ensured regular meetings of the council to ensure
church reform
1460 - Pope Pius II declared appeals to council over the head of the
pope heretical
Renaissance Papacy
Sixtus IV – began the Sistine Chapel, relied of nepotism to promote
family interests
– nepotism: from Greek nepos (nephew) means to favor one’s
family
Alexander VI – scandalized the church by promoting a son, nephew,
& brother of a mistress to cardinal
Julius II – “warrior-pope,” patron of the arts, more involved in politics
that spiritual guidance
Leo X – son of Lorenzo de Medici, pushed Rome to become artistic
center of High Renaissance