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I Must Have That Formula
From Kelly A. Belnick
The Carbon Cycle
CO2
CaCO3
CH 4
:
The different forms and compounds in which carbon atoms are found are considered
chemical reservoirs of carbon. These reservoirs include atmospheric carbon dioxide,
calcium carbonate (in limestone), natural gas, and organic molecules, to name a few.
Light
6CO2  6H 2O 
 C6 H12O6  6O2
Photosynthesis
: Plants use carbon dioxide and energy from the
sun to form carbohydrates in photosynthesis. The carbohydrates are consumed by
other organisms, and are eventually broken down, or “oxidized”.
C6 H12O6  O2  6CO2  6H 2O : The process of respiration. The chemical representation of
how carbohydrates are broken down, or oxidized, thereby releasing energy for use by
the consuming organisms. The carbon used and circulated in photosynthesis represents
only a tiny portion of the available global carbon.
Burning Coal: C ( s)  O2  CO2
Burning Natural Gas: CH 4  2O2  CO2  2 H 2O
Burning Gasoline: 2C8 H18  25O2  16CO2  18 H 2O
Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have increased by 30% since the 1800’s (industrial
revolution). This increase can be explained, primarily, but several human activities. The
most significant of these activities is the burning of fossil fuels.
Nitrogen Cycle
1) N 2 
 NH 3 or NH 4 
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
Atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia or ammonium ion by nitrogen-fixing
bacteria that live in legume root nodules or in soil, or atmospheric nitrogen is converted
to nitrogen oxides by lightening.
2) NH 3 or NH 4  
NO2 
Soil bacteria
NO2   H 2O  NO3  2 H
Ammonia and Ammonium are oxidized by soil bacteria first to nitrite ions and then to
nitrate ions
6) NH3 or NO3- or NO2  
 N2
Denitrifying Bacteria
: After plants have taken up nitrogen from the
soil in the form of nitrate ions, the nitrogen is passed along the food chain. When those
plants and animals die, bacteria and fungi take up and use some of the nitrogen from
the plant/animal protein and other nitrogen containing molecules. The remaining
nitrogen is released as ammonium ions or ammonia gas. Denitrifying bacteria convert
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some ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate back to nitrogen gas, which returns to the
atmosphere.
N 2  3H 2
2 NH 3
Heat + CH 4  H 2O  3H 2  CO
CO  H 2O  H 2  CO2
Haber-Bosch Process: A technique for making ammonia from hydrogen and nitrogen,
according to the first equation. To get the reactants, nitrogen gas is liquefied form air
and hydrogen gas is obtained chemically from methane (natural gas). First natural gas
is treated to remove sulfur-containing compounds; then the present methane is allowed
to react with steam. Carbon monoxide, a product of methane reacting with steam, is
converted to carbon dioxide, which allows for the additional production of nitrogen gas.
Air Pollution Formulas:
4FeS2  11O2  2Fe2O3  8SO2 :
Impurities such as pyrite or iron pyrite are found in coal, when we burn coal it interacts
with atmospheric oxygen to form iron oxide and sulfur dioxide (a primary air pollutant).
2SO2  O2  2SO3 :
The primary air pollutant, sulfur dioxide, is oxidized, once in the atmosphere, to sulfur
trioxide.
SO3  H 2O  H 2 SO4 :
Sulfur trioxide dissolves it atmospheric water droplets to form sulfuric acid. Sulfuric acid
is a major component of acid rain. Sulfuric acid is considered a secondary air pollutant
SOx :
The generalized representation of sulfur oxides, whether it be sulfur dioxide or sulfur
trioxide. The Sulfur oxides are considered primary air pollutants.
N2  O2  2 NO :
Molecules of nitrogen and atmospheric oxygen combine AT VERY HIGH
TEMPERATURES to form nitric oxide, a colorless gas. The high temperatures of natural
processes like lightening or those of the combustion chambers of an engine are
effective in causing this conversion. Nitric oxide is a primary air pollutant
2 NO  O2  2 NO2 :
Once in the atmosphere, nitric acid reacts with additional oxygen to form nitrogen
dioxide, a red-brown toxic gas that causes irritation to the eyes and respiratory system
NO2  H 2O  HNO3 :
Further reaction of nitrogen dioxide with water can produce nitric acid, another
component of acid rain
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Photochemical Smog
N2  O2  Energy  2 NO : Nitrogen oxide is an essential ingredient of photochemical
smog that is produced during the high temperatures associated with combustion of
vehicle’s engines.
sunlight
NO2 
NO  O : Initial reaction of nitrogen dioxide with sunlight
O  O2  O3 : The oxygen atom generated from the initial reaction reacts with
atmospheric, diatomic oxygen, to form ozone. This is not the good, protective ozone of
the stratosphere, this is the polluting ozone of the lithosphere, which traps heat and
contributes to thermal inversion.
Hydrocarbons  Sunlight  O2  CO  NOx  O3  NOx  Organic Compounds CO2  H 2O
This
simplified equation represents the key ingredients and products of photochemical smog.
Hydrocarbons (including VOC’s), carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides from vehicle
exhausts are irradiated by sunlight in the presence of oxygen gas. The resulting
reactions produce a potentially dangerous mixture that include other nitrogen oxides,
ozone, and irritating organic compounds, as well as carbon dioxide and water vapor.
(auto exhaust/VOC's)
(oxidizing agents and irritants)
Air Pollution Control and Prevention
SO2  Ca(OH )2  CaSO3  H 2O : Formula that represents the process of “scrubbing”
products of industrial combustion processes. Sulfur dioxide gas is removes by using an
aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide, also called limewater. The sulfur dioxide reacts
with the limewater to form solid calcium sulfite. Scrubbers that utilize this “wet”
scrubbing method can remove up to 95% of sulfur oxides.
SO2  Mg (OH ) 2  MgSO3  H 2O
MgSO3  SO2  MgO
Another process for scrubbing that utilizes magnesium hydroxide instead of limewater.
The sulfur dioxide dissolves in the water and reacts with the magnesium hydroxide to
form a salt. The magnesium sulfite that is formed can be isolated and heated to
regenerate sulfur dioxide. The recovered sulfur dioxide can be collected and used as a
raw material in other commercial processes.
Acid Rain
CO2  H 2O  H 2CO3 : The pH of rainwater is normally slightly acidic, at about 5.6, due
mainly to reaction of carbon dioxide with water to form carbonic acid.
SO2  H 2O  H 2 SO3
SO3  H 2O  H 2 SO4
2 NO2  H 2O  HNO3  HNO2
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Other natural events can contribute to the acidity of precipitation. Volcanic eruptions,
forest fires, and lightning produce sulfur dioxide, sulfur trioxide, and nitrogen dioxide.
These gases can react with atmospheric water in much the same way that carbon
dioxide does to produce sulfurous acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid and nitrous acid.
Ozone Formation and Destruction
O2  high-energy UVphoton  O  O
O2  O  M  O3  M
As sunlight penetrates into the stratosphere, high-energy UV photons react with oxygen
gas molecules, splitting them into individual oxygen atoms. These highly reactive
oxygen atoms are examples of free radicals; they quickly enter into chemical reactions
that allow them to attain stable arrangements of electrons. In the stratosphere free
radicals can combine with oxygen molecules to form ozone. A third molecule, typically
nitrogen gas or atmospheric oxygen (represented by M in the equation), carries away
excess energy from the reaction but remains unchanged.
O3  medium-energy UV photon  O2  O
O2  O  M  O3  M
Each ozone molecule formed in the stratosphere can absorb a UV photon with a
wavelength of less than 320nm. This energy absorption prevents potentially harmful UV
rays from reaching the earth’s surface. The energy also causes the ozone to
decomposed, producing an oxygen molecule and an oxygen free radical. These
products can then carry on the cycle by replacing ozone in the protective stratospheric
layer.
Cl  O3  ClO  O2
ClO  O  Cl  O2
CFC’s (chlorofluorocarbons) are highly stable molecules in the troposphere, however,
high-energy UV photons in the stratosphere split chlorine radicals from CFC’s by
breaking their C-Cl bond. The freed chlorine radicals are very reactive and can
participate in a series of reaction that destroy ozone by converting it to diatomic oxygen.
Every chlorine radical that participates in the first reaction can later be regenerated.
Thus each chlorine radical acts as a catalyst participating in not just one, but also an
average of 100,000 ozone –destroying reactions. In doing so, it speeds up ozone
destruction but remains unchanged.
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