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Barbarian Experts Alaric at the Gates From his camp outside the gates, the barbarian leader Alaric could see the glory that was Rome. Towering above the city’s stone walls, which stretched for miles, stood great pillared facades and magnificent statues adorning rooftops. But, soon, all he saw would fall. Alaric’s Goths had cut off access to Rome and controlled the city’s 12 gates and all traffic on the Tiber River. The Romans had not faced such a threat for nearly 800 years. In 391 B.C.E., when the Roman leader Camillus had left the city, the Gauls had taken advantage of the situation. They defeated the Roman army just 11 miles outside Rome and then took the city—except for the fortress on the Capitoline Hill. Only after citizens begged Camillus to return and save his beloved city did he do so. Ever since, Rome had resisted invasion. Now, in the year 410, citizens were spoiled by luxury. Most did not even bother to enlist their sons in the army. The emperor Honorius had fled to Ravenna in northern Italy. Rome’s bravest general, Stilicho, had been beheaded. The “Eternal City” was a house of cards, and Alaric was ready to blow it down. When Alaric first laid siege, Roman citizens were outraged. Blaming traitors in their midst, they executed Stilicho’s widow, but that did not drive the barbarians away. Thus, the people were forced to suffer the siege. Used to getting three pounds of bread each day, Romans had to make do with half that, then a third, then nothing because the barbarians food from entering the city. Thousands died of hunger. Others survived by feeding on the corpses of their neighbors. The senate finally sent representatives to talk to Alaric. First, the Romans threatened that if Alaric’s troops did not withdraw, they would be destroyed by the mighty Roman legions. Alaric scoffed at such an empty boast. “The thicker the hay, the easier it is mowed,” he replied. Then the Romans asked what Alaric wanted. His demands were simple. He wanted all the gold, silver, and other wealth in the city, and all the slaves. “If such, O King, are your demands,” the Romans asked, “what do you intend to leave us?” “Your lives,” Alaric answered. In exchange for 5,000 pounds of gold, 30,000 pounds of silver, 4,000 silk robes, 3,000 pieces of fine cloth, and 3,000 pounds of pepper, Alaric would lift the siege. The Romans paid, and soon the gates were opened and river traffic flowed freely once again. Alaric’s troops headed north to Tuscany, where they were joined by runaway slaves and reinforcements. The call was given to turn around and surround Rome once again. This time, the barbarians numbered 100,000 strong. In the city that once had been ruled by powerful Caesars and senates, confusion now reigned. Soldiers sent from Ravenna were slaughtered by other barbarians before they even reached Rome. Alaric’s troops took the port of Ostia. Frightened citizens there named a new emperor, who made peace with Alaric. The allegiance of the army, however, was now divided, and soldiers loyal to each of the two emperors soon took to the battlefield. The emperor friendly to the barbarians was killed, and Alaric again surrounded Rome. Unfortunately for Rome, there were many within the city’s walls who did not cheer for a Roman victory. Thus, one midnight, as Rome teetered on the brink, legions of slaves gathered at the Salarian Gate. For them, to be a slave was to despise one’s master, to constantly seek revenge. As they bitterly remembered the whips that had lashed them, they opened the gate. A barbarian trumpet suddenly sounded, awakening Romans in their beds. It was too late: The barbarians were already inside the walls. Mayhem followed, as swords and knives cut down civilians and men ravished women. Soldiers plundered the glory that was Rome, taking gold and jewels first, then helping themselves to fine furniture and works of art. On orders from Alaric, a Christian, troops spared Rome’s churches and holy relics, but laid waste to everything else. For six days they sacked the city. By the time they left, the streets were littered with bodies and fine villas lay in ruins, their vases and statues smashed. The Roman Empire, although it staggered on, had been dealt a blow from which it would never recover. Barbarian Experts The Barbarian Threat The period between 250 and 410 CE, when Alaric invaded Rome, proved to be one of major changes in Europe. Until then, the Roman Empire had been the dominant power in the area, but by the mid-200s its leaders and generals were finding it increasingly difficult to defend Rome’s outlying districts. Tribes beyond these lands recognized this weakness and began crossing the borders. Among the tribes who pushed south and west toward Rome were the Goths. Originally from an area in southern Sweden, they began to move across Europe in the first century CE until they settled near the Black Sea on the northeastern edge of the Roman Empire (the area known today as the Ukraine). In 248 or 249, they invaded the Roman province of Moesia but were successfully repelled. About this time, the Goths split into two groups, the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths. By 374, a new group of fierce invaders—the Huns—had swept out of the east. The contemporary Roman historian Marcellinus described them as an “ugly” people who lived off plants and half-raw flesh, “which they warm a little by placing it between their thighs and the backs of their horses.” The advance of the Huns set in motion major population shifts, as tribes such as the Vandals, Burgundians, and Franks were forced to leave their homelands and move across Europe in search of safe places to settle. Both the Ostrogoths and Visigoths lost their kingdoms to the Huns. Then, to escape the invaders, more than 200,000 Visigoths crossed the Danube and asked permission of the emperor Valens to settle inside the Roman Empire. At the time, it was not uncommon in border regions to have barbarians settle within the empire. In fact, as the number of Roman citizens serving in the military decreased, officials welcomed these newcomers, many of whom later served as much-needed soldiers in the Roman army. There was, however, a big difference between Roman and barbarian soldiers—a difference that would eventually lead to the weakening of the Roman army. Barbarians were warriors, dependent on chiefs and nobles who fed, housed, and led them into battle. These war bands were always ready to plunder and to seek more power and more land for their families and herds. Their loyalty rested solely with their chief. As a result, after they joined the Roman army, discipline suffered, and so, too, did the effectiveness of the military unit. Although Rome gave the Visigoths land on which to settle, government officials did not treat them well. They attempted to disarm the warriors and to hold their sons as political hostages. Worst of all, at the time of a severe food shortage, the Romans tried selling the Visigoths food at unfair prices. In 378, the Visigoths finally rebelled and plundered the province of Thrace. The emperor Valens forced a battle at Adrianople, but the Visigoths won. Valens was killed, and two-thirds of the Roman army was destroyed. It was the Visigoth cavalry (soldiers on horses) that had made the difference. The warriors used saddles with stirrups, a detail that made them far superior to the Roman saddle. The stirrups gave extra support and allowed quick charges with swords and javelins (short lances). Ammianus reported, “The barbarians poured on in huge columns, trampling down horses and men and crushing our ranks so as to make an orderly retreat impossible. Our men were too closely packed to have any hope of escape....” Ambrose, the bishop of Milan, called this catastrophic battle “...the massacre of all humanity, the end of the world.” Four years later, the emperor Theodosius granted the Visigoths the right to settle permanently in Thrace as foederati (“equal allies”). For the first time, a foreign power ruled over land inside the Roman Empire. Emperor Experts The Years Before the Fall: From Commodus to Diocletian At the beginning of his reign, the emperor Marcus Aurelius (ruled 161–180 CE) issued a coin portraying his twin baby sons on a throne. Since Roman coins crisscrossed the empire, this was his way of assuring everyone of good successors. Only one son, Commodus, survived, and he soon dashed his father’s and the empire’s hopes. Selfish and cruel, Commodus seemed to live for his beloved gladiatorial contests. He left ruling to his elite guards, who, ironically, hired his wrestling partner to kill him. Commodus’ rule illustrates some of the problems that ruined the effectiveness of Roman rule: unfit rulers, assassination attempts, and an overly powerful military. In 193 CE, four different men became emperor in a one year period. Each used bribery or military force to achieve his goal. The first three were murdered. The fourth, Septimius Severus, succeeded to the throne by raising military pay and giving soldiers power—a tactic that soon became standard procedure. Severus did stabilize the empire, but used brutal measures to do so. For example, senators who opposed him were killed. Thus, a strong army was a double-edged sword (both good and bad). Although soldiers protected emperors and defended the empire’s borders against the increasing number of barbarian attacks, the military also killed officials and unpopular emperors. As a result, resentment and hopelessness grew. As more soldiers were recruited, taxes had to be increased since tax money paid for the army’s food and supplies. Because the law stated that only Roman citizens could be taxed, Caracalla, Severus’ son and successor, changed the law. In 212 CE, he made all the empire’s free (nonslaves) inhabitants Roman citizens. Now thousands more were forced to pay taxes for the often cruel and overbearing armed forces. The time from Commodus to Diocletian was unstable and even frightening. There were both victories and defeats in battles against Parthians and Sassanians to the east and Germans and Goths to the north. There were also rising costs and devastating plagues that made life even more difficult. In the 50 years before Diocletian, more than 20 military emperors rose and fell. All but two were killed in battle or assassinated. The emperors Gallienus and Aurelian both improved the army and greatly reduced the barbarian threat. Aurelian drove German invaders from Italy, built a 20-foot-high wall around Rome, and regained territories previously lost. The empire, however, required more than physical defense. It needed safeguards against bad emperors, bloody succession, and usurpers. It needed better administration, economic relief, and military reform. Usurpers are people who take power or possession by force or without right. For more background information (to become an even more knowledgeable expert), look at some of the Emperors on the classroom timeline! Christianity Experts The Birth of Christianity At its height, the Roman Empire counted among its citizens people of many races who spoke numerous languages and followed many religious beliefs. Romans came to know different gods as new lands were added to the empire, and often included some of these gods among those they traditionally worshiped (like Jupiter, Juno, etc). Freedom of religion was generally allowed. There were numerous religious groups that flourished and gained followers. The Christian religion started as one of these, but with one important difference. Christianity promised something that other belief systems of the time did not: a chance of salvation (rescue) and eternal life. Christians believed that their founder, Jesus Christ, was not only a prophet, but the son of God. Because Christians put their God above all else—even the emperor—Rome’s rulers did not look favorably on them. From as early as 64 CE, Christians were punished by those in power. The bloodiest persecution came under the emperor Diocletian, who issued many edicts (decrees or laws) calling for Christians to denounce (betray) their faith. Yet because they believed that eternal life and salvation awaited them, Christians preferred to face death rather than give up their beliefs. As a young soldier, the future emperor Constantine witnessed the persecutions and saw how Diocletian’s attempts to destroy the Christians failed. At the same time, Constantine realized that loyalty, such as that shown by the Christians to their faith, would be extremely important for a growing empire. Legend has it that as he prepared to battle his arch rival Maxentius, Constantine saw an unusual sign in the sky and heard the words, “In this sign thou shall conquer.” Whether this story is true or not, Constantine did have his soldiers paint a sign representing the first two letters of Christ’s name on their shields. When he defeated Maxentius, Constantine resolved to repay his debt. After he was proclaimed emperor, he passed a law known as the Edict of Milan, which, for the first time in history, proclaimed freedom of religion as a fundamental right of every person. Constantine was careful not to alienate those who continued to follow pagan beliefs. He believed that when the emperor’s support was withdrawn from the older religions, they would wither and disappear naturally. He also brought about many reforms—everything from laws for better treatment of slaves to proclaiming Sunday as an official day of rest. By decree, these laws applied to people of all faiths. It was under the Roman emperor Theodosius I that Christianity became an official religion of the empire. Like Constantine before him, Theodosius knew that a strong church was key to a strong government. Theodosius became known as “the Great” after he passed an edict that commanded all people to follow the Christian religion. Those who refused to do so were considered criminals and punished. Soon after Theodosius’ death in 395, the Roman Empire in the west fell. The Christian Church, however, continued to be powerful and played a key role in history of western civilization. For additional background information (to become an even more knowledgeable expert), see pages 358-359 in the purple History Alive textbook! Roman Army Experts All for Power As a way to get more soldiers, Rome’s third leader, Severius Tullius, divided the citizens of Rome into five classes based on wealth. This method made the ability to purchase weapons a qualification for service. The richest recruits served as the cavalry (rode on horses), and the rest as infantry (foot soldiers). Therefore, military service was required and the wealthy had better (safer) roles than the poor. What put stress on this system was the continuous warfare Rome was involved in. In theory, the army was designed for local wars for only short periods of time. Yet Rome’s plan to extend its territories meant long wars, many of them to be fought overseas. In addition, not all generals were masters on the battlefield. This factor, combined with an increase in deaths and injuries, led to anger among Roman citizens and refusal to serve. The long absences from home made it hard for soldiers to support their families (they were always away!). To avoid a crisis, Rome’s officials tried to encourage more men to become soldiers, but its efforts didn’t work. One general, Marius, greatly revised (changed) the army’s set-up. He abolished (got rid of) qualifications and sought volunteers from the lower classes. He also promised land and money to those who survived the war. In an effort to guarantee their safety, he made improvements in the quality of the equipment provided to them, instilled discipline in them by providing training under the watchful eyes of the commanding officers, and had soldiers carry their own equipment. “Marius's 'mules'”--as his troops were called--displayed the famous silver eagle standard, an emblem of their unity. Contrary to the expectations of the Senate, Marius's armies won battles in Africa and Gaul. These victories saved Rome from potentially dangerous situations, but made many dependent on constantly fighting wars. Soon Rome became addicted to war and gaining power. Though Marius created a trained and disciplined army, his troops were loyal to a commander rather than to Rome and were promised rewards by a general and not the government. Instead of being loyal to the empire, soldiers supported their generals. While Marius did not use his army for his own power, future leaders--the generals Sulla, Pompey, and Julius Caesar--did. Sulla even had his army help him take control of Rome itself. To win supporters for himself and his policies, Pompey promised recruits land and money. Caesar had his army accompany him across the Rubicon River into Italy--an action that led to the end of the Republic/democracy and civil war. War was constant in Rome and led to many problems, especially when generals fought amongst themselves or competed for power. Gaul refers to an ancient region in western Europe that now consists mainly of France and Belgium. For additional background information (to become an even more knowledgeable expert), read pages 326-333 in the purple History Alive textbook!