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A level – Developmental Area Key theme: External Influences on Children’s Behaviour • Bandura et al (1961) – Transmission of aggression • Chaney et al (2004) – Funhaler Study Key theme: Moral Development • Kohlberg (1968) – Stages of moral development • Lee et al (1997) – Evaluations of lying and truth-telling Recap Focus of the developmental area is on child development. It cuts across other areas and perspectives. So, Freud’s study of Little Hans could be considered developmental and Kohlberg’s study is based in the cognitive perspective also. Therefore, they use a variety of research methods (this study is self-report) and a variety of explanations for development (this study uses a cognitive explanation) Key ideas – the child develops in stages and development is a result of both nature and nurture Learning Outcomes • To be able to describe the background to Kohlberg’s study into moral development • To be able to describe the aim and procedure of Kohlberg’s study using appropriate psychological terminology Technical Accuracy:- be resilient manage my time effectively meet deadlines As an Independent Learner I will … plan and carry out research analyse and evaluate information KOHLBERG, L. (1968) The child as a moral philosopher At birth we’re all amoral, lacking any system of personal values and judgements about what is right and wrong. In the field of moral development, morality is usually defined as principles for how individuals ought to treat one another, with respect to justice, others’ welfare, and rights. How do we become moral? – jot thoughts Background and Context Freud (psychodynamic) – Morality develops at the end of the phallic stage when the boy resolves the Oedipus Complex and the girl resolves the Electra complex. At this stage the child identifies with the same sex parent and begins to internalise their values and morality as the Superego develops from age 5 Skinner (behaviourist) – Morality develops from the learning process – reward and punishment Piaget (cognitive) (1920s) – Created a theory where the child goes through stages of moral development and believed that they do not have the cognitive capacity to behave in a moral way until they had successfully reached a certain stage in development Kohlberg (1960’s) was heavily influenced by the work of Piaget and believed that children’s cognition develops through stages. However, Kohlberg disagreed with Piaget that the process was complete by early adolescence. • Piaget was Swiss • Kohlberg was American Stages of Development Like Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and moral development – as you develop cognitively and develop more mature moral reasoning you move through the stages. Earlier stages of development will be characterised by egocentricity (seeing things from only your own point of view Piaget) Not everyone will reach the final stage. Some people will remain at a far lower stage. You cannot miss stages out You may progress through the stages at different speeds Criminals tend to be at a lower level to non-criminals Implications – Age of criminal responsibility In the UK a child of 10 or over can be held responsible for a crime if it can be shown that their moral development was such that they understood they were doing wrong! Jamie Bulger case – Venables and Thompson (11yrs)were asked if they understood it was wrong to take a child and kill him. However……. In India ….. An 18 year old was sentenced to 3 years in prison for plying a major part in a gang rape and murder of a young woman – because he was only 17 when it happened. Kohlberg’s Theory Task Produce an illustrated poster or flow chart to show Kohlberg’s stages Each of Kohlberg’s six stages can be simplified as follows Moral action – motivation to obey rules Obey rules to avoid punishment “I don’t want mummy to smack me” Conform to obtain rewards, have favours returned etc “If I’m good daddy will buy me an ice cream” Conform to avoid disapproval, dislike by others. “I’d better not do that as Johnny won’t like me any more” Conform to avoid censure by legitimate authorities and resultant guilt. “I could get a fine if I do this and the police catch me” Conform to maintain the respect from others. “I don’t want all my friends to disapprove of me” Conform to avoid self-condemnation “I won’t do it because it’s against my principles” The value of human life The value of a human life is confused with the value of physical objects and is based on the social status or physical attributes of its possessor. “He is richer and cleverer than most people therefore his life should be saved” The value of human life is seen as instrumental to the satisfaction of the needs of its possessor or of other people. “We would be sad if his life wasn’t saved” The value of human life is based on the empathy and affection of family members and others toward its possessor. “I love him so he should be saved” Life is conceived as sacred in terms of its place in a categorical moral or religious order of rights and duties. “Saving lives is the right thing to do” Life is valued both in terms of its relation to community welfare and in terms of life being a universal human right. “If we let him die it’s sending out the wrong message to society” Belief in the sacredness of human life as representing a universal human value of respect for the individual. “Everybody has the right to life” Task People of similar age and background tend to have reached similar levels of moral development. Complete the moral dilemma independently The Heinz dilemma: A woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost him to produce. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman's husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000 which is half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said: "No, I discovered the drug and I'm going to make money from it." So Heinz got desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should Heinz have broken into the store to steal the drug for his wife? Why or why not? Stage one (punishment & obedience): Heinz should not steal the drug • He will be put in prison • Which means he’s a mean bad person. Or: Heinz should steal the drug • it is only worth $200 • Heinz had even offered to pay & wouldn’t steal anything else. Stage two (reward & self-interest): Heinz should not steal the drug • Prison is awful a jail cell is worse than his wife's death. Or: Heinz should steal the drug • he will be much happier if he saves his wife Stage three (conformity – good-boy/nice girl ): Heinz should not steal the drug • Stealing is bad & he’s not a criminal • He tried without breaking the law, you can’t blame him. Or: Heinz should steal the drug • His wife expects it; • He wants to be a good husband. Stage four (law-and-order): Heinz should not steal the drug • the law prohibits stealing it’s illegal. Or: Heinz should steal the drug • He should take the punishment for the crime & pay the druggist • Actions have their consequences. Stage five (human rights): Heinz should not steal the drug • The scientist has a right to fair compensation. • His wife’s illness it does not make his actions right. Or: Heinz should steal the drug • Everyone has a right to choose life, regardless of the law. Stage six (universal human ethics): Heinz should not steal the drug • Others may need the drug just as badly & their lives are equally significant. Or: Heinz should steal the drug • Saving a human life is a more fundamental value than the property rights of another person. Aim of the study • To show how, as young adolescents develop into young manhood, they move through the distinct levels and stages of moral development • To assess whether this process is the same cross-culturally Research Method • Longitudinal study - 12 years • Self-report - hypothetical moral dilemmas, all deliberately philosophical. Each ppt had a 2hr interview with 10 dilemmas to solve (eg Heinz). • Cross–cultural study - Kohlberg also studied moral development in a range of other cultures Sample • 75 American boys who were aged 10-16 at the start of the study were followed at three-year intervals through to ages 22-28. • Moral development was also studied in boys of other cultures including Great Britain, Canada, Taiwan, Mexico and Turkey. Procedure Participants were presented with hypothetical moral dilemmas in the form of short stories. The stories were to determine each participant’s stage of moral reasoning for each of 25 moral concepts/aspects. Aspects assessed included: • The value of human life: tested by asking the participant: • Aged 10: “Is it better to save the life of one important person or a lot of unimportant people?” • Aged 13, 16, 20 and 24: “Should the doctor ‘mercy kill’ a fatally ill woman requesting death because of her pain?” Procedure Using different cultures • Taiwanese boys, aged 10-13, were asked about a story involving theft of food: “A man’s wife is starving to death but the store owner won’t give the man any food unless he can pay, which he can’t. Should he break in and steal some food? Why?” • Young boys in Great Britain, Canada, Mexico and Turkey were tested in a similar way. Findings • In his study Kohlberg gives examples of how boys in his research demonstrated each stage of moral reasoning and how values change as individuals progress through the stages. • Results showed that about 50% of each of the six stages a participant’s thinking was at a single stage, regardless of the moral dilemma involved and participants showed progress through the stages with increased age. • Not all participants over the period of the study progressed through all the stages and reached Stage-6. • Participants progressed through the stages one at a time and always in the same order. • Once a participant had reached a particular stage, they either stopped or continued to move upward. No adults in Stage-4 had been through Stage-6, but all Stage-6 adults had gone through at least Stage-4. • A child at an earlier stage of development tends to move forward when confronted with the views of a child one stage further along and they seem to prefer this next stage. Cross Cultural Findings • Mexico and Taiwan showed the same results except that development was a little slower. • At the age of 16, Stage-5 thinking was much more salient in the US than either Mexico or Taiwan. • Results for two isolated villages, one in Mexico, one in Turkey, also showed that moral thought increased steadily from ages 10-16 though it had not achieved a clear ascendency over preconventional thought. • Trends for lower-class urban groups were intermediate in the rate of development between those for middle-class and for village boys. In these different cultures therefore, middle-class children were found to be more advanced in moral judgement than matched lower-class children. • No important differences were found in the development of moral thinking among Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Buddhists, Muslems or atheists. Learning Outcomes • To be able to describe the findings and conclusions of Kohlberg’s study • To be able to evaluate Kohlberg’s study Technical Accuracy:- key terms –preconvention, conventional and post-conventional stages of morality Learning Outcomes • To be able to describe the findings and conclusions of Kohlberg’s study • To be able to evaluate Kohlberg’s study Technical Accuracy:- key terms –preconvention, conventional and post-conventional stages of morality be resilient manage my time effectively meet deadlines As an Independent Learner I will … plan and carry out research analyse and evaluate information Team Task Based on these findings – come up with 4 conclusions from your team Conclusions • There is an invariant developmental sequence in an individual’s moral development. • Each stage of moral development comes one at a time and always in the same order. • An individual may stop at any given stage and at any age. • Moral development fits with Kohlberg’s stage-pattern theory. • There is a cultural universality of sequence of stages. • Middle-class and working-class children move through the same sequence but middle-class children move faster and further. • This 6-Stage theory of moral development is not significantly affected by widely ranging social, cultural or religious conditions. The only thing that is affected is the rate at which individuals progress through the sequence. ‘Typology’ – different stages characterised by different types of moral reasoning Describe Kohlberg’s ----------- stage of moral development… Refer to moral reasoning shown, moral actions and value of human life Preconventional – characterised by? Conventional – characterised by? Post-conventional – characterised by? Self-assessment Check your own work and amend if necessary Evaluating Kohlberg’s study • Longitudinal Study • Self-Report • Sample • Type of data Lawrence Kohlberg – Moral Development Tomlinson-Keasey & Keasey (1974) investigated links between cognitive & moral development. • Girls of 11 – 12 years at Stage 5 scored well on tests of abstract reasoning – as predicted. • But some failed to show stage 5 moral reasoning. • Abstract reasoning may be a necessary precondition but is not a sufficient explanation of Post – Conventional moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg – Moral Development Carol Gilligan (1982) Kohlberg is sex-biased androcentrism (GK. Andro = man / male) • Kohlberg only interviewed males • Females - stage 3 (interpersonal feelings) • Males - stages 4 and 5 (principles) Carol Gilligan (b. 1936) • Males - rules, rights, & abstract principles - ideal = formal justice. • Females - relationships & compassion - ideal = affiliation not abstract hypothetical dilemmas. Extension task 1. Describe the sample used in Kohlberg’s study of moral development (3 marks) 2. Discuss two weaknesses with the sample used in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development (4 marks) 3. Explain why Kohlberg’s study can be described as longitudinal study (2 marks) 4. Describe what is meant by a ‘moral dilemma’ (4 marks) Using Kohlberg for potential 20 mark questions • Evaluate the use of longitudinal studies in psychology. Refer to core studies in your answer (20) • Evaluate the use of cross-cultural studies in psychology. Refer to core studies in your answer (20 marks) Read and highlight the extract from the textbook – Research Methods Companion pages 79-80 Team Check Round robin Strengths and Weaknesses of • Longitudinal Studies • Cross-sectional/snap shot studies • Cross-cultural studies