Download nle guide for history, culture, myth basics

Study Guide for the National Latin Exam
All levels
Historical Time Periods:
-Monarchy: April 21, 753 B.C. – 509 B.C.
-Republic: 509 B.C. – 27 B.C
-Empire: 27 B.C. – 476 A.D
Social Classesi:
Early System in early Rome:
-Patricians(Patrēs or Patrēs Conscriptī): Highly privileged, aristocratic class, membership was hereditary until
the end of Republic, 3% of population
-Plebeians/Plebs: All Roman citizens that are not patricians, 97% of population, had fewer rights, large
numbers, not slaves, the working poor
-“The conflict of orders” refers to the struggle of the plebs to gain rights and a possibility for advancement in
society. Originally movement between the two groups was impossible, for patricians were forbidden marriage
to plebs. Over time, the aristocracy of birth was replaced by one based on political offices and on wealth.
These earlier systems evolved into:
Upper Classes:
-Senatorial class (senatores): The class basis was political, including men that served in the Senate and their
families. Dominated by nobles, people whose ancestors included a consul. Had to have property worth
1,000,000 sesterces. Prohibited from engaging in nonagricultural business, trade, or public contracts
-Equestrian class (equites): The class basis was economic. Had to have stable minimum of property worth
400,000 sesterces. Were involved in types of businesses prohibited to senatores. Family included.
Lower Classes:
-Commons (plebs/vulgus): Included all other freeborn Roman citizens. Were common workers, bulk of army.
-Latins (Latini): Freeborn residents of Italy. Were granted full citizenship in 89 B.C. (By the Lex Iulia)
-Foreigners (peregrini): Subjects of foreign provinces. Originally, mostly included Greek traders.
-Freedpeople (liberti/libertini): Those who had been slaves, but bought their freedom or were manumitted.
Had various restrictions on rights. Owed duty to their former master, (now their patron) Next generation became
full citizens.
-Slaves (servi): Were the property of their owners. Not racially based. Could possibly buy freedom or be
manumitted. (In the late republic and early empire, 30-40% of population)
-Movement between classes occurred.
-In the third century A.D. the emperor made 2 separate groups, the honestiores (senators, equestrians,
municipal officials, and soldiers) and humiliores (everyone else)
Political Parties:
-Populares: “party of the people” Power base included Assembly of the Tribes. Composed of Senators and
nobles but appealed to plebs.
-Optimates: “the party of the best men” or of the aristocrats: Power base was Senate. Appealed to the interests
of wealthy and old noble families.
Senateii
-Made up of around 100, 300, 600, 900 men, depending on the time, serving for life unless expelled by censors
-Met in Curia
1
Assembliesiii
-Assembly of the Curiae (comitia curiata): oldest assembly, by late Republic had mostly only ceremonial/clan
functions
-Assembly of the Centuries (comitia centuriata): elected consuls, praetors, censors; declared war; served as
court of appeal for citizens sentenced to death, 193 centuries served
-Assembly of the Tribes (comitia tributa): elected magistrates, voted yes or no on laws, 35 tribes determined
geographically
Subgroup: Concilium Plebis: open only to plebeians—this group elected the 10 Tribuni plebis.
Offices of the Republic:
-Cursus Honorum: The required sequence of public offices held by politicians: military tribune (requirement
not enforced), quaestor, aedile (not required), praetor, consul, censor (In bold was the required “course of
honors”)
-Military tribune: 24 men selected by the Tribunal Assembly. Served under the legionary commander
-Quaestor: Elected yearly. Duties: financial administration, second-in-command to a governor in provinces,
pay master for legions, supervision of public games.
-Aedile: Elected yearly. Four positions: two plebs and two patricians (Curule Aediles) Duties: care of the
temples, organized games, maintenance of the public buildings, roads, and aqueducts, water and food supplies,
and sometimes judges in mercantile affairs.
-Praetor: Initially, 2 elected annually, but, as the empire grew, 18 elected yearly. Judges in basilica. Two
judges more prestigious: Praetor Peregrinus (chief judge involving foreigners) and Praetor Urbanus (chief
judicial office in Rome.)
-Consul: Most prestigious job. 2 elected yearly; had to agree to rule. Duties: alternate monthly as the chairmen
of the Senate, city's political agenda, commanded large-scale armies and controlled important provinces. 10
years required before reelection. (10 years according to the Lex Villia Annalis)
-Censor: Elected every 5 years for 18 month term. Duties: census of the people, distribute citizens into voting
classes (based on income and tribal affiliation), membership roll of the Senate, construction of public buildings,
moral status of city, leasing out conquered land for public use and auction.
-Tribune of Plebs: 10 elected yearly. Protected rights of the common man, had power to veto, could exercise
capital punishment, could help a plebeian “in the hands of” a patrician magistrate. Were sacrosanct (touching
them with violent intentions was punishable by death)
-Dictator: Special officer with total military and political power. Elected in times of emergencies by Senate.
Held for 6 months.
Religious Offices:
-Haruspex: trained to read entrails of sacrificed animals to determine will of gods
-Augur: interpreted flight and behavior of birds to determine will of gods
-Pontifex Maximus: chief priest, Caesar appointed in 63 B.C. and later changed calendar under this position
Kings
-Romulus (son of Mars and Rhea Silvia)
-Numa Pompilius (know for religious reforms)
-Tullus Hostilius
-Ancus Martius
-*Tarquinius Priscus
-*Servius Tullius
-*Tarquinius Superbus
* Etruscans
First Consuls
-Brutus and Collatinus
2
Emperors of Rome:iv
Julio-Claudian Dynasty:
-Augustus (Octavian/ Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus): 27 B.C. – 14 A.D.
-Tiberius: 14 – 37 A.D.
-Caligula: 37 – 41 A.D. (murdered by the Praetorian Guard)
-Claudius: 41 – 54 A.D. (poisoned or died naturally)
-Nero: 54 – 68 A.D. (Committed suicide “Oh, what an artist the world is losing.”)
Year of the 4 Emperors (69 A.D.)
-Galba: 68 – 69 A.D.
-Otho: 69 A.D.
-Vitellius: 69 A.D.
-Vespasian: 69 – 79 A.D. (Left his son Titus to finish up the Jewish War)
Flavian Emperors:
-Vespasian: 69 – 79 A.D.
-Titus: 79 – 81 A.D.
-Domitian: 81 – 96 A.D.
5 Good Emperors:v
-Nerva: 96 – 98 A.D.
-Trajan: 98 – 117 A.D.
-Hadrian: 117 – 138 A.D.
-Antoninus Pius: 138 – 161 A.D.
-Marcus Aurelius: 161 – 180 A.D. (Ruled jointly with Verus for a while)
Severan Dynasty: (193 – 235 A.D.)vi
-Septimius Severus: 193 – 211 A.D.
-*Geta: 209 – 211 A.D.vii
-Caracalla: 211–217 A.D.
-**Macrinus: 217–218 A.D.
-Elagabalus: 218–222 A.D.
Alexander Severus: 222–235 A.D.
-*Note: Co-ruled with father, Septimius Severus
-**Note: Not a part of Severan dynastyviii
-Constantine: 306 – 337 A.D., first emperor who professed Christian beliefs ix
Famous Datesx
-1250 B.C.: Trojan War (1184 BC was the traditional date believed by the Romans)
-April 21, 753 B.C. = 1 A.U.C. (ab urbe condita – from the founding of the city)
-312 B.C.: Appius Claudius Caecus builds Via Appia
-79 B.C.: Slave rebellion led by Spartacus is put down by Crassus and Pompey
-31 B.C.: Battle of Actium - Octavian and Agrippa defeated Cleopatra and Marc Anthony
-August 24, 79 A.D.: eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in Campania; Herculaneum, Pompeii, Oplontis and Stabiae are
destroyedxi
Transitional Period time between Republic and Empire: 133-27 B.C.xii
-Gracchi Brothers: Reformed inequality between rich and poor.
3
-Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus: elected as Tribune of Plebs, introduced legislation to distribute land from
Punic Wars to plebs which was eventually passed despite Senate disapproval. Was assassinated due to attempt
to rerun for Tribune illegally without mandatory interval period.
-Gaius Sempronius Gracchus: Was elected Consul, later Tribune of Plebs, helped Equestrians, cheaper grain,
reinstated land distribution for plebs, forced public works (roads, baths, etc.,) asked to be stabbed by own slave
when his revolt was overpowered by Senate.xiii
-Gaius Marius: Reformed army by offering positions to plebs- starting the first “professional army.” Arranged
for army veterans to receive free land. Was consul 7 times. First to show an army was necessary to hold power.
Was exiled multiple times. Organized an army and seized Rome by force, becoming consul for the 7th time.xiv
-Lucius Cornelius Sulla: Patrician, became consul-When he left, caused civil war against Marius and Cinna,
marched on Rome, become dictator, introduced “proscription” (the publication of lists of enemies and offering
rewards for capture), reformed Senatexv
-First Triumvirate: 60-53 B.C., Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey), and Marcus Licinius
Crassus, secret pact pledging mutual supportxvi
-Second Triumvirate: found in 43 B.C., Marcus Antonius, Lepidus, and Octavian, a legal arrangement acting as
joint dictatorship to gather money to stabilize authority and eliminate political oppositionxvii
Wars:
-390 or 387 B.C.: Gauls attacked Rome, sack whole city except Capitoline Hill where Romans barricaded
themselves, Romans alerted of Gallic attack by sacred geese outside Temple of Junoxviii (Brennus was the
leader of the Gauls “Vae Victīs—Woe to the conquered”)
-War with Pyrrhus of Epirus: defeated Roman armies in 280 B.C. at Heraclea, at Ausculum in 279 B.C., but
Romans won at Beneventum in 275 B.C. His two victories took greater losses of men than reward gained
deriving term: “Pyrrhic victory”xix
-Punic Wars: Rome vs. Carthage over land and trade competition. Rome wins each
-1st (264-241 B.C.): concentrated on Sicily, Rome gains the island—Sicily is Rome’s first province
-2nd (218-202 B.C.): Hannibal attacks Italy via Spain. Publius Cornelius Scipio (Scipio Africanus) defeats
Hannibal
-3rd (149-146 B.C.): Carthage is completely destroyedxx
-Civil War/Social War (90-88 B.C.): Most of the Roman allies rebelled, when they didn’t receive the desired
Roman citizenship. Romans finally extend citizenship and defeat any cities still rebellingxxi
-Civil War (49-48 B.C.): between Julius Caesar and Pompey for control of Rome, started when Caesar crossed
the Rubicon, ended when Pompey is defeated at the Battle of Pharsalusxxii
Army Terms:
-Imperator: either assumed by a military commander after a great victory or emperorxxiii
-Dux: general
-Imperium: the legal term to show the power of absolute authority of the consul over the army—essentially, the
power to command an army in the field.xxiv
Weapons:
-Gladius: sword
-Galea: helmet
-Telum: javelin/any sharp penetrating object
4
-Pilum: javelin/throwing spear
-Scutum: shield
-Ballista: catapult similar to a giant crossbow
-Testudo: tortoise/formation when soldiers held shields overlapping, flat over their head
-Aries: battering ram
Famous Authorsxxv
-Sophocles, Euripides, and Aeschylus: Greek tragedy writers, 5th century B.C.xxvi
-Menander: Greek comedy writer, 4th century B.C.xxvii
-Aristophanes: Greek comedy writer. 5th / 4th century B.C.xxviii
-Plautusxxix, Terencexxx: Roman comedy writers, 3rd / 2nd century B.C.
-Hesiod: author of “Works and Days”
-Sappho: poetess - she inspired the Roman poet Catullus
-Herodotus: Historian
-Plato: Greek philosopher
-Socrates: Greek philosopher
-Plutarch: Greek biographer
Golden Age of Literaturexxxi,xxxii,xxxiii
Mostly during the reign of Augustus- this Age lasted from about 75 B.C. to A.D.14
Poetry:
-Lucretius: wrote didactic poems, wrote Dē rērum nātūrā (On the Nature of Things)
-Catullus: wrote lyric poems, topics: to/about friends, erotic poems often about Lesbia/Clodia, invectives,
condolences
-Virgil/Vergil: wrote epic poems, wrote Appendix Vergiliana, Eclogues (or Bucolics), Georgics (or On
Farming), and Æneid
-Ovid: mythological and semi-satirical poems, wrote Metamorphoses (Transformations)
-Horace: odes, epodes, satires, and epistles (phrase “Carpe diem” from Odes (I, xi))
Prose:
-Julius Caesar: wrote Commentarii de Bello Gallico (Commentaries on the Gallic War),
-Cicero: an orator and politician, wrote Catiline Orations: famous orations against a Roman traitor
-Sallust: Roman historian, wrote Conspiracy of Catiline and the War Against Jugurtha
-Livy: Roman historian, wrote Ab Urbe Condita- history of Rome From the Founding of the City
Silver Age Writersxxxiv
1st and 2nd century A.D. following the Golden Age
-Juvenal: satire
-Martial: satire, wrote Epigrams
-Seneca: tragedies
-Pliny the Elder: wrote Naturalis Historia (Natural History)
-Pliny the Younger: wrote letters, the Epistulae
-Tacitus: Roman historian, wrote Historiae and Annales (more precisely Ab excessu divi Augusti)
-Suetonius: Roman historian, wrote Lives of the Twelve Caesars
5
Art
-Parthenonxxxv: Temple to Athena Parthenos, on the Acropolis (IN ATHENS, NOT IN ROME), partially
destroyed but considered the most perfect traditional Greek Doric temple
-Pantheon: (literally “All Gods”) in Rome, rectangular in front (built by Agrippa, admiral and best friend of
Augustus Caesar in 27 BC) and round dome in the rear (re-built by Hadrian in 117 AD after fire destroyed
original), has a hole in dome (oculus) that lets in air and light and highlights the 12 niches of statues (probably
the Olympian gods) around the floor of the building.
-Flavian Amphitheater: Colosseum, built by the Flavian emperors, used for gladiatorial games (Ludi) and
animal fights
-Circus Maximus: elongated oval building for chariot races; built between the Aventine and Palatine Hills
-Doric columnxxxvi: most basic in shape, have a top shaped like a squished marshmallow or pillow
-Ionic column: have a top shaped like ram’s horns
-Corinthian column: have a top shaped like leaves or flowers
-Flutes: indented spaces in the length of the shaft of a column
-Arch: main building method of the Romans, allowed bigger buildings
-Vault: arch that continues on for a length
-Dome: circular arch, usually with a hole/oculus in the top
-Coffer: indentation in the surface of an arch or dome
Major Roadsxxxvii
-Via Appia: Appian Way (312 B.C.) from Rome to Brundisium eventually; built to Capua originally in order to
move troops to fight against the Samnites.
-Via Aurelia: (241 B.C.) from Rome to Gaul
-Via Sacra: road in the Forum of Rome, becomes Via Appia outside of Rome. Triumphal processions and
funerals were made down this road.
Other roads:
-Via Aemilia Scaura: (109 B.C.) from Pisa to Placentia
-Via Aquitania: (118 B.C.) from Naronne to Aquitaine
-Via Augusta (8 B.C) from Pyrenees Mountains to Cadiz
-Via Cassia: (187 B.C.) from Rome to Arretium
-Via Claudia Augusta (13 B.C.) from Venice to Germania
-Via Domitia (118 B.C.) from Italy to Spain
-Via Egnatia: (146 B.C.) connecting Illyria, Macedonia, and Greece
-Via Flaminia: (220 B.C.) from Rome to Ariminum
-Via Latina: runs southeast of Romexxxviii
-Via Postumia: (148 B.C.) from Genua to Aquileia
-Via Salaria: (4th century B.C.) from Rome to Truentinum
-Via Valeria: continuation of Via Tiburtinaxxxix
-Via Julia Augusta: joining of Via Aemilia Scaura and Via Postumiaxl
-Via Popilia: either a continuation of Via Flaminia or from Capua to Rhegiumxli
Aqueductsxlii
-11 total in Rome
-Aqua Appia—built in 312 BC, by same man who built Via Appia. Rome’s first aqueduct.
-Aqua Marcia: first and longest elevated (above ground) aqueduct leading to Capitoline Hill
6
Roman Namesxliii
-Praenomen: personal name
-Nomen: name of clan/gens
-Cognomen: branch of clan/family name
-Agnomen: honorary title added to first 3 names
e.g. Gaius
e.g. Julius
e.g. Caesar
e.g. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus
-Women took names from the feminine version of their father’s nomen, e.g. Julia was the daughter of Gaius
Julius Caesar. Second and third born girls took the names Julia Secunda, Julia Tertia, etc. The younger
daughters might be given a diminutive nickname to distinguish them from older girls, e.g. Julilla.
Praenomina (of men)
Abbreviation Praenomen Abbreviation Praenomen
A.
Aulus
P.
Publius
Ap(p).
Appius
Q.
Quintus
C.
Gaius
Ser.
Servius
Cn.
Gnaeus
Sex.
Sextus
D.
Decimus S. or Sp.
Spurius
L.
Lucius
T.
Titus
M.
Marcus
Ti. or Tib. Tiberius
M'.
Manius
V.
Vibius
N.
Numerius
Roman Calendarxliv
-Kalends (Kal.): 1st of every month
-Nones (Non.): usually the 5th day of the month
-Ides (Id.): usually the 13th day of the month
-“In March, July, October, May
Nones on the 7th and Ides on the 15th day”
-Pridie: day before Kalends, Nones, or Ides, e.g. pridie idus Martias (March 14th)
-Ante dies (a.d.): days before, e.g. ante diem tertium idus Martias (March 13th)
-Romans dated backwards from each of the 3 major days. The day before each was called the pridie. The day
before the pridie had the number III and then Kalends, Nones, or Ides. The Romans counted the Kalends,
Nones, and Ides as the first day, the pridie the 2nd, and therefore the “third day” as III.
Numbers:xlv
1 - unus
2 - duo
3 - tres, tria
4 -quartuor
5 -quinque
6 - sex
7 - septem
8 - octo
9 - novem
10 - decem
11 -undecim
12 -duodecim
13 -tredecim
14 -quartuorde cim
15 -quindecim
16 -sedecim
17 -septemdec im
18 -odeviginti
19 -undeviginti
20- viginti
21 - viginti unus
22 - viginti duo
23 - viginti tres
24 - viginti quartuor
25 - viginti quinque
26 - viginti sex
27 - viginti septem
28 - viginti octo
29 - viginti novem
30 - trigenta
40 - quadraginta
50 -quinquaginta
60 -sexaginta
70 -septuaginta
80 -octoginta
90 -nonaginta
100 -centum
1000 - mille
1st - primus
2nd - secundus
3rd - tertius
4th - quartus
5th - quintus
6th - sextus
7th - septimus
8th - octavus
9th - nonus
10th - decimus
7
Roman Numerals:
-I: 1
-V: 5
-X: 10
-L: 50
-C: 100
-D: 500
-M: 1000
e.g. XC: 90
e.g. CX: 110
Hills of Rome
-Palatine
-Aventine
-Capitoline
-Quirinal
-Viminal
-Esquiline
-Caelian
Outer hills
-Vatican (northwest of Tiber, location of the city today)
-Pincian (north)
-Janiculum (west)
Geography:
Know the following on a map:
Hispania: Spain
Britannia: England
Germania: Germany
Phoenicia: Lebanon, Syria,
etc.
Gallia: France
Caledonia: Scotland
Graecia: Greece
Italia/Hesperia: Italy
Helvetia: Switzerland
Germania: Germany
Hibernia: Ireland
Asia: Turkey
Africa: northern Africa
Illyricum: old Yugoslavia
Seas (Maria):
-Mare Mediterraneum, Mare Nostrum, -----Mare Internum: Mediterranean Sea
-Mare Adriaticum: Adriatic Sea
-Mare Aegaeum: Aegean Sea
-Pontus Euxinus: Black Sea
Rivers (Flumina):
In Italy:xlvi
-Po River: now northern Italy, from Alps into Adriatic Sea, then Cisalpine Gaul
-Rubicon River: divided Rome/Italy from Cisalpine Gail (Caesar crossed it)
-Arno River: flows from the Apennines, through Florence, into the Tyrrhenian Sea
-Tiber River: flows from Apennines, through Rome, into the Tyrrhenian Sea, splits Janiculum and Vatican hills
from others
In Europe:
-Rhenus Flemen (Rhine River) divides Gallia/Gaul from Germania/Germany
-Rhodanus Flumen (Rhone River): flows north from Masillia/Marseilles on the Mediterranean
8
-Thames River: flows through London, England
Mountains (Montēs):
-Alps: in northern Italy (Cisalpine Gaul), stretching across Helvetia, Gallia, and Germania
-Apennines: “backbone” of Italy
-Pyrenees: separate Gallia from Hispania
Islands (Insulae):
-Corsica: west of Italy, north of Sardinia
-Sardinia: west of Italy, south of Corsica; larger of the two
-Sicilia (Sicily): (3 cornered island being “kicked” by Italy); Rome’s first province gained from Carthage at end
of 1st Punic War.
-Creta (Crete): south of Greece
-Cyprus: west of Phoenicia
-Hibernia (Ireland): west of Britannia
Miscellaneous:
-Straights of Gibraltar: Pillars of Hercules, between Spain and North Africa
-Acropolis: the high, flat hill in Athens, Greece where the Parthenon (temple to Athena) is built
Online NLE Guide: http://bol4100-01.k12.fsu.edu/nleinformation.html
9
i
http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/socialclass.html
http://www.unrv.com/empire/the-senate.php
iii
http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/romangvt.html
iv
http://www.scaruffi.com/politics/romans.html
v
http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/Mediterranean/FiveGood.html
vi
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/seve/hd_seve.htm
vii
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius_Septimius_Geta
viii
http://www.livius.org/on-oz/opellius/macrinus.html
ix
http://www.livius.org/cn-cs/constantine/constantine.html
x
http://bol4100-01.k12.fsu.edu/nleinformation.html
xi
http://vulcan.fis.uniroma3.it/vesuvio/79_eruption.html
xii
http://myweb.tiscali.co.uk/temetfutue/timeline/tl_Republic.htm
xiii
http://www.unrv.com/empire/gracchi-brothers.php
xiv
http://www.roman-empire.net/republic/marius.html
xv
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulla
xvi
http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/first-triumvirate.php
xvii
http://www.unrv.com/fall-republic/second-triumvirate.php
xviii
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia_(390_BC)
xix
http://www.unrv.com/provinces/epirus.php
xx
http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/PUNICWAR.HTM
xxi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_War
xxii
http://www.dl.ket.org/latin1/historia/people/caesar.htm
xxiii
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperator
xxiv
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium
xxv
http://bol4100-01.k12.fsu.edu/nleinformation.html
xxvi
http://academic.reed.edu/humanities/110Tech/Theater.html
xxvii
http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2142.html
xxviii
http://duke.usask.ca/~porterj/CourseNotes/Aristophanes.html
xxix
http://www.theatrehistory.com/ancient/plautus001.html
xxx
http://www.theatredatabase.com/ancient/terence_001.html
xxxi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Latin_Literature
xxxii
http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ROME/AUGUSTUS.HTM
xxxiii
http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/horatius.htm
xxxiv
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_literature
xxxv
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenon
xxxvi
http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/sirrobhitch.suffolk/Portland%20State%20University%20Greek%20Civilization%20Home%20Page%
20v2/docs/8/greekark.htm#doric
xxxvii
http://www.unrv.com/culture/roman-road-chart.php
xxxviii
http://www.answers.com/topic/via-latina
xxxix
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Valeria
xl
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Julia_Augusta
xli
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Popilia
xlii
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Valeria
xliii
http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/roman_names.html
xliv
http://www.wilkiecollins.demon.co.uk/roman/calhis.htm
xlv
http://www.rootsweb.com/~deusaa/latin.htm
xlvi
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/europe/italy/
ii
10