Download Burac Zachary Burac HIS 302 – Rome Prof. Finnigan 5/6/13 The

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Zachary Burac
HIS 302 – Rome
Prof. Finnigan
5/6/13
The Equestrians of Rome: Undervalued and Underappreciated
While one looks at the origins of Rome, the beginning and end of the Republic, or the
rise and fall of the Empire, the equestrian class is arguably the most overlooked and undervalued
social class. Whether it is their place in politics, the military or everyday life, the equestrians
played a large role in almost all major events throughout the history of Rome. Their influence in
politics, military, and social life should be reexamined and studied thoroughly.
“The Equites were a social order below senators defined by the size of their financial
holdings. Not being senators, they could not hold offices in the cursus honorum.”1 While this
definition holds more water in regard to the equestrian class during the Republic and Empire, it
is still important to note that they were wealthy and part of the aristocracy, without holding
official political power. The patricians were a very unique class at the beginning of Rome’s
history. Patricians were families who were wealthy and had extremely prestigious backgrounds,
which reinforced their prestige. Those who were not extremely wealthy were slightly below the
equestrian class. However, patricians could move up into the equestrian class and eventually
onto the senatorial class in the Republic and Empire, while original or true members of the
equestrian class could not jump up the ladder and become senators. Regardless, the equestrians
did hold some unofficial political power around 600 or 500 B.C.2
1
Plutarch, Philip A. Stadter, and Robin Waterfield. Roman Lives: A Selection of Eight Roman Lives. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1999. 432.
2
Brunt, P. A. ""Princeps and Equites"" Journal of Roman Studies 73 (November 1983): 42-75. Doi: 10.2307/300072.
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This power and influence came from great success in the fields of battle. The equestrian’s
success can be directly linked to their highly revered value of ethos. Ethos for the equestrians
was targeted towards heroism and glory in battle and considered as the most important value.
Equestrians often kept a large sum of the spoils the recovered from battle and used the spoils to
invest in land. With this as their goal, equestrian soldiers gained the respect and loyalty of their
fellow men, which in turn explains how the equestrian officers were awarded their position, and
how long they were able to keep the position of officer throughout the Republic.3
Roman legend states that when Romulus founded the city of Rome in 753 B.C. he created
the Order of Knights, which was originally solely made up of equites, or equestrians. The Order
of Knights was the cavalry regiment of the Roman military, which proved essential for Rome’s
eventual conquest of the Italian peninsula. As Rome grew so did the Order of Knights. The
patricii, or patricians, were allowed to join the Order of Knights. Eventually the patricians
largely outnumbered the equestrians in the Order of Knights; however, the equestrian members
held the higher offices within the cavalry and the rest of the military and therefore had much
influence in the decision making for the cavalry. While the patrician class eventually became
more prestigious in social life as they eventually owned more wealth and land than the
equestrians, the patrician class was hereditary and therefore disconnected from the lower classes,
as well as slowly decreasing in size towards the end of the Republic. The equestrian class was
not purely hereditary allowing for other classes to join their ranks, including the patricians. Livy
argues that because the equestrians were structured this way, this is what enabled them to hold so
much power, along with their wealth, for a non-senatorial or plebian class. He emphasizes how
the equestrians understood their uniqueness and seemingly took a decent amount of pride in
3
Livy, Robert Seymour Conway, and Stephen Keymer. Johnson. Ab Urbe Condita. Oxonii: E Typographeo
Clarendoniano, 1934.33.
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being separate from the senatorial class during the Republic. If the equestrians did not take pride
in their separation from other classes it is possible to conceive of one massive patrician or
senatorial class which would then in turn even further the gap between the aristocracy and the
commoners of the Roman world.4
By 330 B.C the Republic was truly beginning to emerge with the Senate as the
undeniable figurehead of Rome. While the Senate at this time contained no members of the
equestrian class, the success of Rome was on the soldiers of their military during the Latin and
Samnite Wars. Prior to these wars the Roman military was organized fairly similar to the Greek
armies. The hoplite phalanx was the most popular of the Greek formations that the Romans used.
However, the phalanx proved useless during the Samnite Wars which continued for fifty years. It
was not until the end of the Samnite Wars that the change was made from the large hoplite
phalanx, which was one large lump sum of soldiers, to the manipular army. The manipular army
took the large lump sum of soldiers and divided them into three separate divisions, which in turn
provided more tactical flexibility and strength. This changed led to victory in the Samnite Wars
and solidified the strength of the new found Republic. However, historically the Senate is given
much of the credit for the change made as many officers in the army were of the patrician class
and were serving as senators at the time. However, the equestrians were still the main officers in
the cavalry in the Roman military and should be considered responsible for successfully
modifying the manipular army to work with a large cavalry and infantry. However, by the time
of the Second Punic War in 218 B.C. the numbers of equestrians in the military had decreased
significantly enough that they became an exclusive officer class. The patricians, along with the
“First Class” commoners filled the holes left by the absent equestrians. With this occurring, the
4
Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 45. 16,39.
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equestrian officers became more tacticians, organizers, and planners for the military campaigns
and camps.5
With the equestrians in less danger of encountering death on the battlefield, their numbers
began to rise again after the Second Punic War. However, they were still an exclusively officer
class. This in turn gave way for them to acquire wealth in farming like any good Roman would
do, or in other forms of business. In 218 B.C. another important event took place for the
equestrians. The Lex Claudia was passed which prohibited any Roman of the senatorial class to
own large merchant ships. While this law was introduced by the current Tribune of the Plebs,
Livy suggests that select members of the equestrian class pressured the plebs into supporting this
law once they learned of their diminished role in the military. Regardless, this left a large
vacancy in the merchant business which need to be filled immediately to help pay for the current
war with Carthage. Overseas commercial enterprises in mining and land were the primary
industries that the equestrians took advantage off. Until Augustus assumed control taxes were
collected in a somewhat questionable manner. The Senate would hire out “third-party” clients,
who were the land owning equestrians, to collect the taxes for the lands they controlled. This was
found to be especially prominent in in the provinces Rome gained from Carthage where the
majority of the land was owned by equestrians. Many equestrian’s wealth grew exponentially,
for some even enough to potentially join the senatorial order.6
While the equestrians were growing exponentially in wealth and influence, Augustus rose
to power in Rome. This event came to be somewhat detrimental to the status of equestrians as the
gap between the equestrians and the senatorial class widened, while at the same time the gap
between the plebs and the equestrians shrunk significantly. Before Augustus, the equestrians
5
Cornell, Tim. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000-264 BC).
London: Routledge, 1995. 76.
6
Livy, Ab Urbe Condita, 63
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were pressuring the plebs to pass a law allowing for members of the equestrian class, who were
not patricians, to potentially join the senatorial class. Instead, Augustus replaced Julius Caesar
and made some monumental changes. Augustus set a minimum property requirement of 250,000
denarii to join the senatorial class. This was almost insurmountable for a majority of equestrians
who were not also patricians. Regardless, true equestrians were still restricted from joining the
senatorial class even if they met the proper land and denarii requirements. On top of this setback
for the equestrians, the requirement to join the equestrian class was set to only 100,000 denarii
for patricians. True equestrians were given the potential to join the senatorial class, but this
would only come via a nomination by the Senate, which then needed to be approved by the
Emperor7. Also, the senatorial class was extended from sitting senators down to third generations
after them. This new class was automatically granted the second highest class position in society
as well as the equestrian class moving down the ladder. The common equestrian dress of a
narrow-striped tunic and gold ring was also made available to the patricians who could move
into their ranks. With all this done the equestrians might as well have been ghosts in the political
spectrum and public life.8
The public careers of equestrians outside of military service as commanding officers in
the legions, trade merchants, and chief tax officers were quite rare. A majority of the equestrians
fell into at least one of the careers previously mentioned if not all three of them at some point.
Those who did not serve as one of those positions either had enough wealth from farming or
investments or became local government officials not part of the cursus honorum. This
sometimes included serving time as judges working under the presiding senatorial members in
charge of overseeing court cases. While the treasury and judicial duties were officially controlled
7
Talbert, Richard. "The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts." Cambridge Ancient History 10, no. 2 (August
1996): .326.
8
Talbert. “The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts.” .333.
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by the senatorial class or emperor, the equestrian judges and tax collectors held high positions in
both treasury and judicial professions. Later into the progression of the Roman Empire, often
times equestrians were not appointed senators but would be appointed governors of provinces
under Roman control. The most prestigious of these posts was the governorship of Egypt.
Acquiring this position often meant ensuring a strong and positive relationship with the emperor
at that time. This was not an unthinkable scenario as it often occurred. Many times due to the
political instability and lack of loyalty in Senate caused by factions, equestrians were often more
trusted by emperors than senators. Senators had the money, influence, and military support
needed to pose a threat to the emperorship. This lead to a lack of trust between the emperor and
senators, sometimes even those within a faction that the emperor supported. The emperor often
times then turned to equestrians to rule as governors.9
This is often where the equestrian’s role in politics is overlooked in Rome’s history.
Often times equestrians were dangerous political players, if not more so than senators. In 26 B.C,
the equestrian governor of Egypt, Gaius Gallus, was exiled by Augustus for his participation in a
plot to overthrow him. The Praetorian Guard, which was the personal body guard of the emperor
throughout the Empire, was always commanded by a member of the equestrian order. The
Praetorian Guard was extremely important and influential throughout Rome’s history. The
Praetorian Guard assassinated Caligula, proclaimed Claudius emperor of Rome, deserted Nero
altogether which led to his death, murdered Galba, and defended Otho. The Praetorian Guard
was so vital and influential to the civil wars, as well as the rest of the empire’s history, that
Vespasian was forced to greatly reduce the size of the Praetorian Guard. However, this still did
not diminish their important role and connection with the emperors all the way through
Constantine who disbanded them. If the Praetorian Guard was not responsible for the death of all
9
Tacitus, Bahrdt, Karl Friedrich. Tacitus' Annales. Vol. 2. Halle: Gebauer, 1807.45.
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the emperors before Constantine, they were responsible for the succession and defense of the
emperors. Every Praetorian Guard had at least one Praetorian prefect who was of equestrian
status. The emperor Titus was himself a Praetorian prefect. While he served as prefect he was a
member of the patrician class, however, his father was previously of equestrian class and Titus
only gained patrician status through marriage.10
The political role of equestrians did not stop at the Praetorian Guard however. If senators
wished to stage a coup against the emperor they would need money, senatorial support, and an
overwhelming amount of military support. All senators had some money which made this first
essential very easy to acquire. A few deals or bribes would easily gain support from the lower
members of the Senate. Senatorial support was not hard to find in the unstable political spectrum
of Rome with the increase in factionalism and a strong decrease in loyalty from the days of the
Republic. Senators just had to align with a particular faction and be opportunistic. Acquiring an
overwhelming amount of military support was the difficult essential to obtain. Most senators did
have a decent amount of military experience and therefore must have had at least some followers
left in service, but so did the rest of the influential members of the Senate. On top of acquiring
military support from other senators, gaing support from equestrians was even more difficult.
Five of the six highest commanding officers in the cavalry were always of equestrian
background. The infantry also often had equestrian class commanders as well. Since military
equestrians could only be commanding officers of select units, the units they commanded had
undying loyalty to them. In order for a senator to stage a successful coup, the support of a large
number of equestrian commanding officers must have been acquired before a coup was even
10
Jones, Arnold H. M. The Later Roman Empire. Vol. 8. Oxford: Blackwell, 1964. 98.
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taken seriously. During the Year of the Four Emperors, lack of support from enough of the
equestrian commanding officers is what led to the extensive bloodshed in the civil wars.11
When looking back at Rome’s history from a small civilization competing for dominance
in the Tiber valley, conquering the Italian Peninsula, defeating Carthage, the civil wars, and the
transformation from a republic into an empire, the equestrian class is often overlooked,
undervalued, and underappreciated. In almost all of the major events in Roman history, the
equestrian class plays a vital role for better or for worse. With no official political power for
most of history, they found a way to impact and influence all events. Roman history as it has
been recorded would have been completely altered if the equestrian class was nonexistent. Yet it
the equestrian class often goes great lengths of time in history without properly being analyzed
and appreciated. While almost no emperors come from true equestrian backgrounds, the class
itself is largely responsible for the everlasting impact the Roman civilization has had on history
and will continue to have. Therefore, the equestrian class should be thoroughly studied and
evaluated as to gain a more accurate, unique, and true perspective on the Roman civilization.
11
Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith. The Complete Roman Army. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson, 2003. 60-65.
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Bibliography
Bahrdt, Karl Friedrich. Tacitus' Annales. Vol. 2. Halle: Gebauer, 1807.
Brunt, P. A. ""Princeps and Equites"" Journal of Roman Studies 73 (November 1983): 42-75.
doi:10.2307/300072.
Cornell, Tim. The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars
(c. 1000-264 BC). London: Routledge, 1995.
Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith. The Complete Roman Army. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson,
2003. 60-65.
Jones, Arnold H. M. The Later Roman Empire. Vol. 8. Oxford: Blackwell, 1964.
Livy, Robert Seymour Conway, and Stephen Keymer. Johnson. Ab Urbe Condita. Oxonii: E
Typographeo Clarendoniano, 1934.
Plutarch, Philip A. Stadter, and Robin Waterfield. Roman Lives: A Selection of Eight Roman
Lives. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Talbert, Richard. "The Senate and Senatorial and Equestrian Posts." Cambridge Ancient History
10, no. 2 (August 1996): 326.