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Outline the Role of Hannibal throughout the Second Punic War and assess the
impact of his leadership on the Roman PopulaceThe legend of Hannibal Barca today remains one of the most celebrated in history.
Stories of his campaigns in the Second Punic War such as his crossing of the Alps, or
the battle of Cannae continue to marvel historians at the genius of his leadership.
However, Hannibal’s success would eventually be downtrodden by his jealous
countrymen, who refused to give him reinforcements in times of war. Despite this,
Hannibal’s campaigns stand out for their unorthodox, nonetheless effective means
of victory on the battlefield. Rome, the great empire of the ancient world, was
threatened by one man’s visionary and utter hatred. Had Hannibal received proper
support from Carthage, one may well argue that Rome’s fate could have been
completely different.
If it be true, as no one doubts, that the Roman people have surpassed all other
nations in valour, it must be admitted that Hannibal excelled all other commanders in
skill as much as the Roman people are superior to all nations in bravery. For as often
as he engaged with that people in Italy, he invariably came off victor; and if his
strength had not been impaired by the jealousy of his fellow-citizens at home, he
would have been able, to all appearance, to conquer the Romans. 1
One needn’t look any further than the work of Polybius to observe the level of
attention that Hannibal accredited. All Carthaginian Sources on Hannibal were
destroyed, so our knowledge comes from an entirely Roman Perspective. Of course,
validity of ancient sources is always questionable, particularly Roman, but together
with the works of other ancient historians such as Livy and Appian, Hannibal is
presented to us a fierce leader who exceeded his roman opponents on the
battlefield.
Hannibal came from Carthage, the dominant naval empire in the Mediterranean.
While Carthage held vast areas of North Africa and Islands in the Mediterranean,
Rome controlled nearly all of the Italian Peninsula and other parts of Europe. After
the First Punic War (2414-BC), where the two sides fought over the island of Sicily,
Carthage began to look to Spain to re-establish its empire following its bitter defeats.
It was here in Spain that a young Hannibal swore an oath of hatred and vengeance
against Rome, before his father, the noble Hamilcar Barca. When Hannibal took
control of Iberian forces at the age of 21, he sought to honour that oath.
After the First Punic War, Rome imposed the Ebro treaty on Carthage. This restricted
Carthaginian expansion to the Ebro River in Spain. In 219BC, Hannibal moved against
the city of Saguntum, winning it in an eight month siege. Although it lay below the
borderline, it was in fact a Roman ally. When the Roman senate became aware of
1
From: Polybius, The Histories of Polybius, 2 Vols., trans. Evelyn S. Shuckburgh
(London: Macmillan, 1889), I. 264-275.
this, they demanded the handing over of Hannibal. Once Carthage refused, the
Second Punic War began.
As the great ancient Historian Polybius pointed out, it would be a mistake to look no
further than the supposed breach of the Ebro Treaty to explain the war. Both sides
were ready to fight: Carthage, to regain all that was lost in the First Punic War and
since then; Rome, to put an end to the threat of Carthage once and for all. 2
Carthage now had a war on their hands. Hannibal made a bold decision to take the
fight straight to Italy, rather than wait for the Romans to attack. By putting a direct
threat to Rome, Hannibal hoped that he could win over many of Rome’s unwilling
Italian allies, and weaken its power. So, with an army of 50,000 infantry, 9,000
cavalry and 37 elephants, Hannibal set out from Spain, and marched through
Southern Gaul, crossed the Pyrenees and the River Rhône, where he ferried his
elephants across the water on large rafts.
It is this story that remains Hannibal’s most noteworthy military feat, the crossing of
the Alpines. Not only did his army face fierce resistance from the local tribes,
but also the bitter cold of the Mountain climate. Although Hannibal lost a large
number of his men and elephants, he reached the Po River Valley in Northern Italy,
and won the support of its inhabitants, the Gauls. Gaius Flaminius, the Roman
General, blocked the Apennine Passes, hoping to Prevent Hannibal from entering
Etruria, where he could threaten Rome directly from the north. Hannibal took
another nearly impossible route through the mountains, and broke through to
Etruria in 217BC. As Flaminius and his army followed the Carthaginians, Hannibal set
up an ambush on the shores of Lake Trasimene, where he crushed Flaminius and
25,000 of his men.
Now that Rome was aware of this defeat, they decided that the only way to beat
Hannibal was by sheer numbers in what they thought would be a final onslaught. In
the following year, 80,000 Roman soldiers marched out to confront Hannibal at
Cannae. Aware of the consistent Roman tactic of placing their main force of heavily
armored legionaries in the centre of the battle line, Hannibal arranged his lightest
armed troops (the Celts and Spaniards) in a convex line, in front of his main force of
Carthaginian foot-soldiers. Both sides placed their cavalry on their flanks. As the
Roman centre forced itself into the Carthaginian line, Hannibal’s cavalry won the
fight on both flanks. This left them free to turn in and attack the rear of the Roman
line, which now found itself surrounded. In a tight squeeze, where even their
weapons could not be used, 45,500 Roman infantry and 2700 cavalry were
slaughtered, as opposed to only 6/8000 Carthaginian Infantry. Livy tells us that after
this battle, there were now over 170 new vacancies in the Roman Senate. The battle
of Cannae today remains Hannibal’s greatest victory, and Rome’s single greatest
defeat.
2
J.Lawless, K. Cameron, T. Catalanotto, D. Hennessy, G. Kenworthy, B. Leadbetter, A. Nobbs, K.
Welch, Personalities from the Past, Nelson ITP, (1997) pg 191
It would be a long story to enumerate all his battles. Therefore it will suffice to add
this one fact, to show how great a man he was: so long as he was in Italy, no one was
a match for him in the field, and after the battle of Cannae no one encamped face to
face with him on open ground.3
After Cannae, Sicily, Capua and many southern Italian localities defected to Hannibal.
In the years that followed, Hannibal and his army continued to roam the
countryside, as he held a comfortable presence in Northern Italy. In 211 Hannibal
marched a force right up to the walls of Rome itself, however a siege did not take
place, as the Roman reaction was not what he had hoped, and he was still short of
reinforcements from Carthage. Polybius’ World History and Livy’s History of Rome
from its Foundation, (the two most important sources on Hannibal) tell us that the
Carthaginian Senate was jealous of Hannibal’s success and refused to provide him
with the support necessary to sustain control in Italy.
Hannibal’s end was unfortunate. While Publius Cornelius Scipio, the Roman consul,
had already won a series of victories in Spain, Hannibal’s brother, Hasdrubal Barca,
attempted to land reinforcements in Northern Italy. He was, by unfortunate
circumstances, defeated and left Hannibal with no reinforcements for his army.
Scipio had returned to Italy to gather an army to cross into Africa, for a full scale
battle between the two sides. Carthaginian difficulties were such that Hannibal was
eventually recalled from Italy, although peace negotiations were in order.
The Battle of Zama (202BC) is Hannibal’s last great battle and first serious defeat.
In this battle, Hannibal’s previous tactics could no longer outwit the Romans, who
were determined to succeed under Scipio. He opened the battle charging his 80 war
elephants into the Roman line. They responded with trumpet blasts, frightening the
elephants back into Carthage’s line, while opening up their ranks and letting others
run right through. Hannibal’s lack of numbers was the main factor in this defeat, as
well as the defection of the Numidians (thanks to Scipio) whose strong cavalry
contingent with the Romans routed Hannibal’s horsemen, already confused by the
rioting elephants. As Hannibal’s army was in a state of chaos, the Romans were given
some breathing time and were able to regather their army in stronger formations.
Scipio’s heroic efforts saw Rome take Carthage once and for all, while Hannibal was
forced into exile. Many years later, before the Romans could get to him, Hannibal
finally died after drinking poison.
So one may question whether Hannibal died a hero’s death or not. But what is clear,
is that it took many years, hard fought battles and defeats for the Romans to finally
beat Carthage. So long as Hannibal led on the battlefield, Rome was faced with a
daunting obstacle, one that was not easily overcome. It is for this reason that we
remember Hannibal, not for his defeat, but for his many victories, all of which were
the result of superior battle tactics and resourcefulness.
3
Polybius, op cit
No-one doubts the enormity and prestige of Hannibal’s campaigns throughout the
Second Punic War. Although the accuracy of some of his victories does tend to come
into question, it is generally accepted that he held the upper position during its
course, and that when the war is mentioned, his is the first name to come to mind.
All ancient sources point towards the notion that his leadership, visionary and war
tactics were exceptional, and that history had never seen a leader so ruthless in
battle. His destiny can be traced back to the oath that he swore at a young age, one
that was so full of hatred that it could have brought Rome to pieces.
For Rome, the war with Hannibal was an ugly one. They had lost thousands of
troops, consuls and generals, and suffered many bitter defeats. One would gather
that such a figure in Roman history would not merit recognition or respect, however
this was not the case. Instead, the main sources from several Roman Historians paint
Hannibal as a great leader among men, one whose perseverance and ingenuity won
him battles, not merely numbers. For this very reason, the legend of Hannibal is ever
present today, and for many historians, investigating his campaigns tends to evoke
strong admiration and awe.
Hannibal’s effect on Rome is not only evident in the words of their Historians, but
also in the events of the War. One instance that demonstrates Rome’s desperation is
the Battle of Cannae (218BC). By this stage, Hannibal had already won a string of
victories, all of which were costly for the Romans. Their decision to send 80,00
troops in an attempt to finally suppress him and his army, demonstrates rash actions
made during desperate times, a costly mistake that would be remembered in history
for all the wrong reasons. By this battle, Hannibal proved that it would take more
than brute force to defeat him, and that Rome would suffer many more defeats
before they could overcome this.
All military commanders who have been masters of strategy and great leaders of
men have left their legends to inspire or to intimidate later generations, and
something unforgettable about Hannibal could fire the imagination of the Romans
whenever they thought of their historic past.4
When examining Livy and Polybius’ histories, one may conclude that careful
precision and investigation was carried out during the time of writing. For example,
Information on the crossing of the Alps comes from an eyewitness account, written
by one of Hannibal's companions, Sosylus of Lacedaemon, who is known to have
written a history of the Second Punic War in seven books. Polybius used the original
text, while Livy knew it indirectly. Livy called upon another source who meticulously
noted the information from the report in a precise chronology. Polybius also crossed
the Alps to find out how Hannibal had invaded Italy and sailed along the coast of
Western Africa. From this Information, we can feel confident that these histories of
Hannibal in the Second Punic war are fairly accurate and cover the necessary details.
4
Titus Livius- The War with Hannibal: Books Xxi-xxx of The History of Rome from Its Foundation,
Penguin Classics (1965) pgs 7-8
Perhaps some of Hannibal’s campaigns are exaggerated by ancient Roman
Historians, to demonstrate the long fight that Rome eventually won. By painting the
picture of a great opponent, Rome’s glory is magnified in its final victory at Zama,
and it elevates the efforts of the great Scipio Africanus (who received his title from
his victory at this battle). Modern Authors interpretations of Hannibal may tend to
exaggerate his victories also, drawing from the work of ancient historians and adding
to the spectacle of a great figure in History.
From an objective view, we can conclude that Hannibal Barca was a great
commander, one of the most talented history has seen, and that one man’s effect on
Rome was enough to sustain a legend that has just as much significance today.