Download Comparative Civilizations 12

Comparative Civilizations 12
Chapter 6
The Roman Empire
After the assassination of Julius Caesar, three men competed for his power.
1. Octavian (Augustus) - Caesar's adopted son
2. Marc Antony
3. Lepidus
Also, Sextus, Pompey, the son of Pompey the Great, was trying to gain power
Octavian defeated Antony in a battle and then had himself appointed as consul. He then
formed the Second Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus to aveng the murder of
Caesar.
In 40 BC, the Triumvirate met in Brundisium to divide the Roman world amongst
themselves.
1. Octavian controlled the east
2. Antony controlled the west
3. Lepidus controlled Africa
Also, Antony married Octavia, Octavian's sister, to seal the pact.
Lepidus left the Triumvirate to become Pontifex Maximus.
In 36 BC, Marcus Agrippa defeated Sexutus Pompey in a naval battle.
In the same year, Antony met and married Cleopatra VII, the Queen of Egypt
ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA
Antony and Cleopatra married for love, not political power
By marrying Cleopatra, Antony rejected Octavia and Octavian. Octavia never
recognized the divorce from Antony.
Cleopatra had previously been involved with Julius Caesar and had his son -- Ptolemy
Caesar (Caesarion). Antony and Cleopatra had three children together and gave all of
them their own kingdoms to rule.
Antony and Cleopatra's idealic life together ended on 23 September 31 BC when
Octavian and Agrippa defeated them at the Battle of Actium.
2
In 30 BC, Antony and Cleopatra both committed suicide.
Because of his dynastic threat, Caesarion was immediately killed. Cleopatra';s three
other children were sent to live with Octavia, who also looked after Antony's children
from a previous marriage, as well as her children from a previous marriage and her
marriage with Antony.
THE GROWTH OF THE EMPIRE
.
In January 27 BC, Octavian formally returned the state to the Senate and the People. For
this act, he was given the name "Augustus" (dignified or opposing)
Augustus personally kept control of all the territories with large armies. Provinces with
small armies were given back to the Senate. Egypt was ruled as Augustus' private
kingdom.
In 23 BC, Augustus became Tribune of the People and in 12 BC, he became Pontifex
Maximus, and thus had all the decision making power in Rome. Augustus had given
birth to the Roman Empire with him as the first Roman Emperor.
THE PRINCIPATE
Augustus tried very hard through his reign not to upset anyone. He was neither arrogant
nor decadent, and ruled Rome skillfully as primus inter pares (first among equals) Principate.
Augustus championed the cause of peace, and the benefits of this peace were told in the
fine arts and literature of the time. Augustus and his family were personally responsible
for rebuilding 82 temples and public places, including the forum Romanum, and they
built the new fora.
August revamped the administration of the Roman Empire



Made the career of official in provincial government of in the army desirable
Created a professional civil service
Created the vigiles, a combination police force and fire fighting brigade
Augustus also linked the worship with Roma with the worship of himself, sometimes as
New Zeus
Augustus fostered the spread of "Romanity" and really did find a city of bricks and left it
one of marble.
3
Two factors contributed to the success of the Principate
1. People's desire for peace after years of civil war
2. Augustus lived a long time, and outlived many potential heirs
LITERATURE IN THE AGE OF AUGUSTUS
During Augustus' reign, the arts, architecture, sculpting, and literature blossomed,
especially while C. Maecenas (unofficial Minister of Culture) was alive
Three Masters
Virgil wrote Rome's national epic, the Aeneid which tells of Aeneas' escape from Troy
and his arrival and victory in Italy. Julius Caesar was descended from Aeneas, and so
were Romulus and Remus, the founders of Rome.
Horace wrote in a variety of Greek methods and applauded the benefits of peace,
Augustan rule, and Roman domination.
Ovid was a poet who wrote humourous and satirical poetry. He was banished from
Rome because of his poetry and his involvement with Augustus' daughter, Julia.
BUILDINGS IN THE EMPIRE
To be classified as a civilization, the majority of the society must speak the same
language, be subject to the same laws and principles of government, and worship the
same gods. Also, a society should be centred in a city or urban development
THERMAE (BATHS)
During Roman times, bathing was a social activity. Large public bathhouses were built
for relaxation by the rich and the poor.
Bathhouses were generally divided into men's and women's sections. For a small fee, a
patron could enter a change room and strip naked. After that, the person could enter the
frigidarium to take a cold plunge. Then the person would proceed to the tepidarium
before entering the caldarium (hot room). A patron could also go the laconicum (sweat
room) or the palestra (exercise room). Some baths also had shops. Patrons could also
mingle with the opposite sex in the piscina (swimming pool) or exercise in the
gymnasium. The baths were heated from below by a fire called a hypocaust
4
THEATRES
The first stone theatre in Rome was built in 55 BC by Pompey the Great
A typical theatre was semicircular with an orchestra in the front and a backdrop. Behind
the backdrop would be changing rooms and property storage.
During the Augustan period, the spoken art form became less popular and pantomimes
grew in popularity.
AMPHITHEATRES
The first amphitheatre was built in 29 BC, and it was devoted to public entertainment.
The Colosseum in Rome had 80 entrances, four seating areas, and could hold 50 000
spectators. Gladiator fighting and convicted criminals were killed in the arena.
CIRCUS
A circus was a long race-track with starting gates at one end, a central wall around which
chariots raced, and turning-posts at either end of the wall.
Chariot racing was popular because people of either sex could sit together. Chariot racers
were divided into four teams - Greens, Whites, Blues, and Reds. Charioteers also had to
perform tricks while racing.
The Circus Maximus at Rome was 6 by 2 football field s and could hold 200 000
spectators.
NAUMACHAE
These were artificial lakes for mock sea battles. Prisoners were used in real sea battles
and hand to hand battle.
GLADIATORS
Pairs of gladiators fought each other for public amusement. There were formal rules for
this fight to the death. The crowd of spectators would decided if the gladiators lived or
died.
5
THE PRIVATE HOUSE
All private houses seemed to have a long and deep entrance which opened into an atrium
(a rectangular area open to the sky).
The rain on the roof dripped into a waterproof, concrete tank in the floor of the atrium.
On either side of the atrium, there were bedrooms. Opposite to the entrance was the
reception room. If you went through the reception room (tablinum) you would enter a
cloistered garden (peristyle). The peristyle was for relaxation and recreation
THE RISE OF CHRISTIANITY
Christianity has its basis in Judaism. Judaism's holy book - the Torah - was written under
supervision of Yahweh - God. The basic law - Ten Commandments - are believed to be
have been written on two stone tablets by God and given to Moses.
Around 30 AD, Jesus Christ began to teach that the prophecies of the Torah were to be
fulfilled now. Jesus' followers believed him to be the Son of God - the Messiah - and that
the Kingdom of God was happening then. Jesus performed many miracles and also
forgave sins. Jesus would forgive you r sins if you accepted him as God's sole agent.
The leaders of the formal Jewish religion were not so accepting of Jesus because they
believed only God could forgive sins. They also refused to believe that Jesus was the
Messiah.
When Jesus and his 12 followers (apostles) arrived in Jerusalem, Jesus was arrested and
tried by Pontius Pilate, the Roman financial officer. Jesus was crucified because he
refused to deny that he was "King of the Jews," a direct challenge to Roman imperial
power. Christians believe that Christ became alive again, three days after his death.
After his resurrection, he ascended to heaven.
The unexpected conversion of the main opponent of the dissidents, Paul, led eventually to
the demise of the old pagan gods and the growth of the new faith. Paul converted in
AD 36.
In the twenty years after Jesus' death, his teaching became a separate religion from
Judaism. Former worshippers of pagan gods were allowed admission into the faith
without the accompanying rituals. Everyone had an equal opportunity for salvation and a
better life in heaven.
Most emperors had a tolerance for this new Christian religion, however, Nero was a huge
exception. He burned Christians alive because he blamed them for the great fire in Rome
6
EXPLANATIONS FOR CHRISTIANITY'S SPREAD
Christianity was popular for a number of reasons, including the promise of life after
death, the sense of equality all followers had, and the morality of converts.
Christian converts were intent on behaving morally towards all people. Christians also
organized their religion into a defined bureaucratic structure. Thirdly, the Christian
religion had all its religious writing written down. All other religions did not have all
three of these characteristics.
THE SUCCESSORS OF AUGUSTUS
Tiberius (AD 14 - 37) was Augustus' stepson and his reign was increasingly hard. He
ended his reign on the island of Capri.
Caligula (AD 37 - 41), Augustus' grandson, took his name from the little boots he wore
when in his father's army camp as a tiny infant. Cruelty and debauchery marked his
reign. Because he didn't respect the Senate, he made his favorite horse, Incitatus, a
senator. He had many affairs with married women and his sisters. The Praetorian Guard
(his bodyguards) murdered him.
Claudius (AD 41 - 54) was Augustus' nephew and had long been considered to be a
complete embarrassment to his family because he had a stutter and a limp. He was,
however, a very good emperor. Under him, Britain became a lasting part of the Roman
Empire.
Claudius' nephew, Nero (AD 54 - 68) had been groomed for the throne by his mother,
whom he eventually had murdered. He became very unpopular, and many people blamed
him for the great fire in Rome. He was also known for his cruelty towards Christians.
He burned them alive and threw them to the lions. Nero was murdered.
After Nero, there were three emperors in one year, Galba, Otho, and Vitelius.
Vespasian (AD 69 - 79) was a wise ruler and was succeeded by his son, Titus (AD 79 81), who was known for his generosity.
Titus' brother, Domitian (AD 81 - 96) was an autocratic tyrant best known for his
persecution of Christian and Jews. His wife helped plot his assassination with his
successor Nerva (AD 96 - 98).
7
Trajan (AD 98 - 117) was born in Spain and had spent many years as a soldier and
administrator. Trajan was responsible for making Rome more beautiful. He also
expanded the borders of the empire in every direction. He is generally thought of as an
able administrator.
Hadrian (AD 117 - 138) was Trajan's adopted son and is generally considered a truly
great Roman emperor. He too was born in Spain and had been a soldier and
administrator. He consolidated Roman rule through his travels around the Empire. He is
probably best known for building Hadrian's Wall in northern England to prevent the
Picts from invading England. Hadrian was also responsible for rebuilding the Pantheon.
THE PANTHEON
The Pantheon is a circular temple, built in 25 - 33 BC by Agrippa, and totally rebuilt in
about AD 126 - 128. It is one of the most architecturally influential buildings in the
western world. Its impressive dome was the inspiration for the Capitol building in
Washington, DC.
A person passes though huge antique bronze doors to enter into a space 43.2 m wide and
tall. The ceiling has sunken panels. A circular opening 8.3 m across illuminates the
Pantheon.
The Pantheon has survived because it was converted into a church in the seventh century.
LITERATURE IN THE FIRST TWO CENTURIES AD
Tacitus and Suetonius wrote about the early emperors. Tacitus wrote Histories and
Annals from a hostile senatorial viewpoint. Suetonius was Hadrian's one-time secretary,
and he wrote Lives of the Twelve Caesars.
Petronius Arbiter was a narrative fiction author who poked fun of the extravagance of
the time. Apuleius wrote Metamorpheses or Golden Ass, the only true novel surviving
from antiquity.
Pliny the Elder wrote a 37 volume Natural History. He died trying to help people
fleeing from Mt. Vesuvius' eruption. His adopted son, Pliny the Younger, recorded his
death.
Poetry was also popular at this time. Popular poets of the time included Statius, martial,
and Juvenal.
8
STOICISM
Stoicism was a moral and physical philosophy popular in the first two centuries AD,
whose essential message was "not to worry." The aim in life was to accept whatever
come along, al nature is, and whatever "is" is right.
Seneca (4 BC - AD65) was a philosopher and teacher born in southern Spain who
tempered the harshness of Nero's early years. When his influence declined, he was
forced to commit suicide.
TRADE AND COMMERCE
Trading and commerce came into its own during the peace of the Empire. Trading took
place as far as China, India, and Britain. The most widely traded items were wine and
olive oil. Amphorae, or clay containers, have been found in the Thames River in
London, England.
COINAGE
Before 290 BC, bronze coins began to replace bartering. The stereotypical Republican
coin had the head of Janus on one side and the prow of a ship on the other side. The
worth of the coins was their face value.
At the time of the Punic Wars, the silver denarius was introduced, valued at 10 asses (1
as being the worth of the previous bronze coins). Aurei were gold coins worth 20 - 60
asses. Money was produced under the authority of the Senate.
August devalued coins -- a silver denarius was not really worth a denarius of silver. This
practice was carried on until the end of the Western Empire. The Barbarian kings
imitated this practice.
SLAVERY
Almost all civilizations have had periods of slavery. Slavery is defined as the
enforcement of labour by the subjugation of one person to the domination of another.
Slaves were used in the Roman Empire in almost every aspect of human activity. Slaves
were trained as gladiators, and were also used in construction projects. Educated slaves
were used in business, for teaching, or grooming. Public slaves were used as
executioners or to clear out the dead from the Colosseum. Torture of slaves was a
common method to find out information about their masters.
9
Private slaves had a social order. The lowest slave worked outside on estates not in
Rome. The highest were inside slaves in Roman homes.
With the spread of the Roman peace, there were fewer new slaves, which lead to slaves
becoming more expensive, and thus treated better. Slaves could never own property and
were not legally considered people. A slave couple could form a legally recognized
contubernium (shacking up) which their owner could not dissolve by selling one of the
partners independently of the other.
Manumission occurred when a slave bought his/her freedom or was released by the
terms of a deceased owner's will. Once freed, the slaves were tied to his or her former
owner for the rest of that person's life as a libertus (freedman).
AQUEDUCTS AND WATER SUPPLIES
The Romans were the greatest inventors of technology until the Industrial Revolution.
Aqueducts provided clean water to Roman settlements all over the Roman Empire from
Rome to Britain. A water source was located on a hillside where the flow was fairly
constand and its height was such that the water could be fed some distance by gravity
alone.
First, a source was normally polled into a settling tank, where the flow of water could be
regulated at the intake. Second, a channel lined with water proof mortar and covered to
prevent contamination or a sudden increase due to a rain storm was directed from the
source to the outlet around the contours of a hill.
Romans had running water in their homes.
THE ROMAN COOK
The Roman cook was inventive and also liked to present food beautifully. They used
spices and herbs and liked the taste of sweet and sour. Roman banquets were known for
their opulence.
THE EMPIRE TO DIOCLETIAN
Up until the fourth century, Rome was secure and free from threat. Some notable
emperors during the period AD 138 -284 were

Septimus Severus (AD 193 - 211) was the first emperor from Africa
10

Caracalla (AD 188 - 217) gave all free residents of the Empire Roman
citizenship in AD 212

Diocletian was made emperor in AD 284 and he had previously been a
member of the Praetorian Guard.
Rome's downfall had already started

Staggering inflation

Poor people were abandoning marginal agricultural lands

The army could not effectively resist the pressure placed on the frontiers of
the Empire

The Northern borders were being invaded by barbarians

The Empire had grown too big to be administered by one man
DIOCLETIAN'S REFORMS OF THE ARMY AND STATE
In AD 293, Diocletian divided the empire in two. There would now be two senior
emperors - Augusti - and two junior assistants - Caesares. Eventually, the Western
Empire would die, but the Eastern Empire lasted until 1204 AD in the form of the
Byzantium Empire.
Diocletian reformed the military

Standing armies would be spread along the borders

Mobile armies would be distributed throughout the provinces

Calvary (horse) units were important as infantry (foot) units

An increase in the recruitment of Germanic immigrants
Diocletian could not overcome inflation, even with his Edict in AD 301 establishing
maximum prices and wages.
Shortly after he first arrived in Rome in AD 303, he had a stroke. He, along with his
partner, Maximian, abdicated on 1 May AD 305 and lived out his days in Split,
Yugoslavia.
Diocletian remained loyal to the Roman gods and treated Christians harshly.
11
DIOCLETIAN'S PERSECUTION OF CHRISTIANS
The emperor Decius (AD 249 - 251) blamed all the bad things that were happening in
Rome on the spread of Christianity and the rejection of old pagan gods. He demanded
that all citizens make sacrifices to the Roman gods, and those who refused were executed.
During the reign of Diocletian, he had the holy writings (scriptures) burned and churches
destroyed. If a person didn't sacrifice to Diocletian, he/she was executed. Many people
preferred death to rejection their faith. These people were known as martyrs.
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT
Constantine (AD 306 - 337) succeeded Diocletian. After he beat his opponent Maxentius
at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge outside Rome in AD 312, he attributed his victory to
the Christian God, which paved the way for his conversion to Christianity. His Edict of
AD 313 promoted toleration of Christianity.
Constantine was confused about the nature of the Christian religion because prior to his
conversion, he had worshipped the Unconquered Sun, which he blended with Judaism.
CONSTANTINOPLE
Constantine favoured Christian communities everywhere.
Constantine established Constantinople as the major seat of government. The idea of
Rome was transformed subtly into a concept of nationhood under God. Constantinople
was officially known as "New Rome" and was given equal constitutional authority as
Rome in AD 359.
ROME IN THE FOURTH CENTURY
The city of Rome became the capital of the Roman Empire's official religion,
Christianity. The Pope or Pontiff was the Bishop of Rome and was in a way, a successor
of the Pontifex Maximus.
Rome was also a popular place for tourists and there were even guidebooks published to
help tourists find popular sites.
12
TWO CULTS
Numerous religions were practices during the Roman Empire
The Cult of Isis
This religion based on the worshipping of the Egyptian goddess, Isis was very popular,
especially in Pompeii and Rome. Her worship was widespread, but it was overwhelmed
after the official introduction of Christianity as the official religion of the Empire.
Mithraism
The worship of the Iranian deity, Mithras, was especially popular with soldiers and
merchants in the fourth century. There was a belief in personal immortality, and while
many ceremonies were similar with Christianity, they did believe in ritual sacrifice.
BC TO AD
BC means Before Christ and AD means Anno Domini or In the Year of Our Lord.
Before AD 540 when priest Dionysuis Exiguus introduced this system, the counting of
years was quite difficult. Some common ways to count years were





The number of years since the founding of Rome in 753 BC
The period of time between Olympic Games which started in 776 BC
The number of years since the fall of Troy in 1183 BC
The names of the consuls in Rome
The number of years an emperor had ruled
LITERATURE
The fourth century was a time in which many of the finer arts flourished. North Africa
was a hot bed of activity which included mosaics
Ammianus Marcellinus (AD 330 - 395) was Rome's last great historian. He was briefly
emperor from AD 360 - 363. He was Rome's last pagan emperor.
There were also Christian writers like Macrobius who wrote Saturnalia.
THE END OF THE WEST
The Roman Empire came to an end when Barbarians from the north began to invade
Rome.
13
THE BARBARIANS
After Constantine died in AD 337, the Empires were riddled with internal intrigue and
plots. Beyond the borders of the Empire, there were great movements of peoples and a
great disturbance among the nomadic and more settled tribes.
The Visigoths and Ostrogoths took over land that had previously been taken by the
Romans - Dacia. Then the Huns from the Hungarian steppes swooped down on their
horses and displaced the Alans and the Goths.
Rome tried to defend the empire, but the military actions were grossly mismanaged. In
AD 378, the eastern Augustus Valens was killed at the Battle of Adrianople. Theodosius
(AD-379 - 395) replaced him.
THEODOSIUS THE GREAT
Theodosius ruled with restrain and wisdom, and was able to deal effectively with the
Barbarian menace, even employing Visigoths as mercenary soldiers.
Theodosius was a devote Christian and in AD 391 put a ban on all pagan worship and
ordered the temples closed. In AD 393, he abolished the Olympic Games as they were a
pagan festival.
THE VISIGOTHS
When Theodosius died in AD 395, his sons took over the empire

Arcadius (AD 395 - 408) in the east

Honorius (AD 395 - 423) in the west
At the same time, Alaric was elected the new Visigoth leader. Alaric was persuaded to
attack the western empire because Honorius was too young to rule on his own and was
being advised by Stilicho, a Vandal by birth, but thoroughly Romanized
With the help of the Alans, whom he let settle to the north of Italy, Stilicho defeated the
Visigoths. However, he was forced to ask for help from the Visigoths when Rome was
experiencing famine. Because of this, Stilicho was declared an enemy and was beheaded.
Alaric agreed to help Rome for a huge sum of money. When Alaric realized the money
was not coming, he attacked Rome and captured it in August AD 410.
After the sacking of Rome and the death of Alaric, the Visigoths settled in Spain,
Portugal, and France. They shared power over the land with the Romans and used their
own law system. Rome continued using it own justice system.
14
THE HUNS
The Alans, defeated by the Visigoths, joined forced with the Vandals and settled around
Carthage.
At the same time, the Saxons and Franks had invaded the British provinces and the
Alamanni had taken land south of the Rhine River.
In AD 451, the Huns, made their first advance into Roman territory at France. In AD
452, the Huns, under Attila, invaded Italy, and while they did not capture Rome, they did
leave great destruction.
THE LAST YEARS
In AD 476, the Western Empire finally died when his general Odoacer deposed Emperor
Romulus Augustulus.
Theoderic the Great (AD 493 - 526) ruled Italy as the Italian peninsula's first Gothic
king. Theoderic was Christian. His reign marks the transition between a Roman world
and a medieval age.
Reasons for the downfall of the Western Roman Empire

The movements of the Germanic tribes

The crippling inflation

Christianity lessened the belief in the supremacy of the Roman idea

Personal initiative died
Constantinople and the Eastern Empire evolved into the Byzantine Empire, which
would not fall until 1453 AD.
The Roman Empire evolved into a series of Germanic kingdoms.
ROME'S LEGACY
One of the most important things that Rome left was its language. Latin is the root of
languages like French, Italian, Spain, and English.
The Romans also left a religion that most people in the western world believe in. The
Catholic Church was so influenced by the Roman Empire that you could call it a Roman
religion.
15
Roman architecture is still influencing architects today. Also the inventions of concrete
and the arch are truly significant.
The Roman government is still influencing democracies today.
Lastly, the Roman Empire gives us a sense of what is a civilization.