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Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 1 of 2) Interacting atoms form molecules that combine in the protein filaments of a heart muscle cell. Such cells interlock, creating heart muscle tissue, which makes up most of the walls of the heart, a three-dimensional organ. The heart is only one component of the cardiovascular system, which also includes the blood and blood vessels. The various organ systems must work together to maintain life at the organism level. Cellular Level Chemical and Molecular Levels Heart muscle cell Protein filaments Complex protein molecule Atoms in combination The Organ Systems Integumentary Major Organs • Skin • Hair • Sweat glands • Nails Functions • Protects against environmental hazards • Helps regulate body temperature • Provides sensory information Skeletal Major Organs • Bones • Cartilages • Associated ligaments • Bone marrow Functions • Provides support and protection for other tissues • Stores calcium and other minerals • Forms blood cells Muscular Major Organs • Skeletal muscles and associated tendons Functions • Provides movement • Provides protection and support for other tissues • Generates heat that maintains body temperature Nervous Major Organs • Brain • Spinal cord • Peripheral nerves • Sense organs Functions • Directs immediate responses to stimuli • Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems • Provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Endocrine Major Organs • Pituitary gland • Thyroid gland • Pancreas • Adrenal glands • Gonads • Endocrine tissues in other systems Functions • Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems • Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body • Controls many structural and functional changes during development Cardiovascular Major Organs • Heart • Blood • Blood vessels Functions • Distributes blood cells, water and dissolved materials including nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide • Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 2 of 2) Organ system level Organism level Organ Level Tissue Level The heart Cardiac muscle tissue The cardiovascular system Lymphatic Major Organs • Spleen • Thymus • Lymphatic vessels • Lymph nodes • Tonsils Functions • Defends against infection and disease • Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream Respiratory Major Organs • Nasal cavities • Sinuses • Larynx • Trachea • Bronchi • Lungs • Alveoli Functions • Delivers air to alveoli (sites in lungs where gas exchange occurs) • Provides oxygen to bloodstream • Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream • Produces sounds for communication Digestive Major Organs • Teeth • Tongue • Pharynx • Esophagus • Stomach • Small intestine • Large intestine • Liver • Gallbladder • Pancreas Functions • Processes and digests food • Absorbs and conserves water • Absorbs nutrients • Stores energy reserves Urinary Major Organs • Kidneys • Ureters • Urinary bladder • Urethra Functions • Excretes waste products from the blood • Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced • Stores urine prior to voluntary elimination • Regulates blood ion concentrations and pH Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Male Reproductive Female Reproductive Major Organs • Testes • Epididymides • Ductus deferentia • Seminal vesicles • Prostate gland • Penis • Scrotum Major Organs • Ovaries • Uterine tubes • Uterus • Vagina • Labia • Clitoris • Mammary glands Functions • Produces male sex cells (sperm), suspending fluids, and hormones • Sexual intercourse Functions • Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones • Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery • Provides milk to nourish newborn infant • Sexual intercourse Thermometer STIMULUS: Room temperature rises Air conditioner turns on EFFECTOR Sends commands to 20ⴗ 30ⴗ 40ⴗ CONTROL CENTER (Thermostat) Information affects Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. (the control center) triggers an effector response (either an air conditioner or a heater) that restores normal temperature. In this case, when room temperature rises above the set point, the thermostat turns on the air conditioner, and the temperature returns to normal. a In response to input from a receptor (a thermometer), a thermostat Normal condition restored RESPONSE: Room temperature drops Normal room temperature HOMEOSTASIS Normal condition disturbed RECEPTOR Figure 1-2 The Control of Room Temperature 22 Time Air Air conditioner conditioner turns off turns on Normal range temperature fluctuates around the set point. b With this regulatory system, room Room temperature (ⴗC) EFFECTORS • Sweat glands in skin increase secretion • Blood vessels in skin dilate Sends commands to CONTROL CENTER Information affects Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. comparable to those shown in Figure 1–2. A control center in the brain (the hypothalamus) functions as a thermostat with a set point of 37°C. If body temperature exceeds 37.2° C, heat loss is increased through enhanced blood flow to the skin and increased sweating. a Events in the regulation of body temperature, which are Normal temperature restored RESPONSE: Increased heat loss, body temperature drops Normal body temperature HOMEOSTASIS STIMULUS: Body temperature rises Normal temperature disturbed Temperature sensors in skin and hypothalamus RECEPTORS Figure 1-3 Negative Feedback in the Control of Body Temperature Time Vessels Vessels dilate, constrict, sweating sweating increases decreases Normal range body temperature fluctuating within an acceptable range, usually between 36.7 and 37.2°C. b The thermoregulatory center keeps 37.2 37 36.7 Thermoregulatory center in brain Body temperature (ⴗC) The chemicals start chain reactions in which cells, cell fragments, and soluble proteins in the blood begin to form a clot. Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Damage to cells in the blood vessel wall releases chemicals that begin the process of blood clotting. Chemicals Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting As clotting continues, each step releases chemicals that further accelerate the process. Chemicals Positive feedback loop Clotting accelerates This escalating process is a positive feedback loop that ends with the formation of a blood clot, which patches the vessel wall and stops the bleeding. Blood clot Pedal or foot Femoral or thigh Pubic (pubis) Inguinal or groin Pelvic (pelvis) Trunk Manual or hand Umbilical or navel Abdominal (abdomen) Mammary or breast Thoracic or thorax, chest Cervical or neck Buccal or cheek Otic or ear Ocular, orbital or eye Nasal or nose Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Hallux or great toe Digits (phalanges) or toes (digital or phalangeal) Tarsal or ankle Crural or leg Frontal or forehead a Anterior view Facial or face Pollex Digits or thumb (phalanges) or fingers (digital or phalangeal) Patellar or kneecap Palmar or palm Carpal or wrist Antebrachial or forearm Antecubital or front of elbow Brachial or arm Axillary or armpit Oral or mouth Mental or chin Cephalic or head Cranial or skull Figure 1-5 Anatomical Landmarks Plantar or sole of foot Calcaneal or heel of foot Sural or calf Popliteal or back of knee Gluteal or buttock Lumbar or loin Olecranal or back of elbow Acromial or shoulder Dorsal or back b Posterior view Upper limb Lower limb Cervical or neck Cephalic or head Left inguinal region Left lumbar region Urinary bladder Spleen Stomach regions provide more precise regional descriptions. the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the locations of the internal organs are shown here. Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Hypogastric (pubic) region Umbilical region Epigastric region Left hypochondriac region b Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic c Anatomical relationships. The relationship between Appendix Small intestine Large intestine Gallbladder Liver Right hypochondriac region Left Upper Quadrant Right lumbar (LUQ) region Left Lower Right Quadrant inguinal (LLQ) region abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are most often used in clinical discussions. a Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) Figure 1-6 Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions a A lateral view. Caudal Anterior or ventral Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Posterior or dorsal Cranial Figure 1-7 Directional References Inferior Superior Distal Proximal Medial Distal Proximal Left indicate important directional terms used in this text; definitions and descriptions are given in Table 1–2. b An anterior view. Arrows Lateral Right Sagittal plane Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Transverse plane Frontal plane Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes Surrounds left lung Contains the trachea, esophagus, and major vessels Surrounds right lung Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Surrounds heart Pericardial Cavity Left Pleural Cavity Mediastinum Pelvic Cavity Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, last portion of digestive tract Abdominal Cavity Contains many digestive glands and organs Extends throughout abdominal cavity and into superior portion of pelvic cavity Peritoneal Cavity Abdominopelvic Cavity Subdivides during development into Right Pleural Cavity Surrounded by chest wall and diaphragm Thoracic Cavity • Provides protection • Allows organ movement • Linings prevent friction Ventral Body Cavity Figure 1-9 Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Ventral Body Cavity Pelvic cavity Abdominal cavity Peritoneal cavity Diaphragm Pericardial cavity Pleural cavity ANTERIOR Parietal pericardium Pericardial cavity Visceral pericardium Balloon Air space Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity POSTERIOR Left lung central location of the pericardial cavity. Notice how the mediastinum divides the thoracic cavity into two pleural cavities. Note that this transverse or cross-sectional view is oriented as though the observer were standing at the subject’s feet and looking toward the subject’s head. This is the standard presentation for clinical images, and unless otherwise noted, sectional views in this text use this same orientation. c A transverse section through the thoracic cavity, showing the Spinal cord Right lung ANTERIOR pushed into a balloon. The attachment site, corresponding to the wrist of the hand, lies at the connection between the heart and major blood vessels. The width of the pericardial cavity is exaggerated here; normally the visceral and parietal layers are separated only by a thin layer of pericardial fluid. b The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like a fist Heart Parietal Abdominopelvic pleura cavity Mediastinum Thoracic cavity Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology, 9e by Frederic H. Martini, Ph.D. and Judi L. Nath, Ph.D., © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. body cavity, which is divided by the muscular diaphragm into a superior thoracic (chest) cavity and an inferior abdominopelvic cavity. Three of the four adult body cavities are shown and outlined in red; only one of the two pleural cavities can be shown in a sagittal section. a A lateral view showing the ventral POSTERIOR Figure 1-10 The Ventral Body Cavity and Its Subdivisions