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AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Semester 1 Final Exam Review Terms, people, and theories to know Unit 1: History and perspectives Terms to know People to know empiricism Aristotle—monoist functionalism Calkins, Mary—first female president of APA (1905) Gestalt Darwin—natural selection theory adds to nature argument and eugenics movement introspection Descartes—dualist, believed mind’s eye is in the pineal gland natural selection Dix, Dorothea—write book about mentally ill and need for reform of mental institutions nature vs. nurture debate Freud, Sigmund—father of psychoanalysis psychology Galton, Sir Francis—eugenicist argues intelligence is genetic repression Hall, G. Stanley—first PhD in USA in psychology stimuli James, William—1st psych text book, father of functionalism, mentors Mary Calkins at Harvard structuralism Locke, John—helps establish empiricism and argues Blank Slate idea of human mind trephination (Drilling holes into skull to release demons) Maslow, Abraham—humanist Neisser, Ulric—cognitive theorist unconscious mind Plato—dualist (mind and body separate) applied research Rogers, Carl—humanist basic research AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS behavior genetics Titchener, Edward—father of structuralism Biopsychosocial approach Washburn, Margaret—1st PhD in psychology, wrote book “The animal mind” eclectic approach Watson, John—father of behaviorism; little Albert experiment levels of analysis Wundt. Wilhelm—1st psych. lab, father of structuralism Subfields in psychology: Werthiemer, Max—father of Gestalt biological, developmental, cognitive personality, social Professions in psychology: counselor, clinical, psychiatrist Perspectives of psychology Behaviorism Attkinson & Shiffrin—early 3-box model of memory Baddeley, Alan—improved 3 box model of memory includes automatic processing and converts short-term memory to “working memory” tying incoming sensory stimuli to stored memories Bower, Gordon—value of hierarchies for memory Ebbinghaus, Herman—forgetting and rehearsal curves Biopsychology Loftus, Elizabeth—lost in the mall, misinformation effect, memory construction, repressed memories Cognitive Miller, George—7 +/- 2 rule for short-term memory Evolutionary Schacter, Daniel—7 sins of memory (why we forget things) Humanist Sperling, George—iconic memory studies Psychoanalytic/psychodynamic Sociocultural AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS I. Types of memory, making memory acoustic encoding aplysia snail (study shows classical conditioning and LTP change that occurs with associative learning) automatic processing central executive processor chunking cocktail party effect Ebbinghaus’ retention curve echoic memory effortful processing (person makes concerted effort through rehearsal, mnemonics, hierarchies, semantic learning to learn information) eidetic memory encoding episodic memory flashbulb memory hierarchies iconic memory imagery implicit memory long-term memory method of loci memory mnemonics mood congruent memory AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS peg word positive transfer priming procedural memory recognition vs. recall retrieval self-reference effect semantic encoding sensory memory short-term memory spacing effect state-dependent memory storage visual encoding von Restorff effect (we remember unusual words that appear in a long list of words or things that stand out in a crowd) working memory FORGETTING & MISREMEMBERING Alzheimer’s –ACh, plaques amnesia anterograde amnesia—can’t make new memories (ALA HM after having hippocampus severed) déjà vu Ebbinghaus forgetting curve infantile amnesia misinformation effect AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS motivated forgetting next-in-line effect proactive interference reconstructive memory repression retrograde amnesia –can’t remember the old! retroactive interference—new info. interferes with ability to access old rosy retrospection selective attention serial position effect source amnesia Brain and physiology – role of each of the following in forming or creating or corrupting/losing memories amygdala—route for emotional memories cerebellum—route for procedural memories (implicit memories) frontal lobe—home of episodic memories hippocampus—route for short-term episodic and declarative memories (explicit memories) long-term potentiation—neural change that occurs due to frequent firings of neurons; allows for learning parietal lobe sleep and memory—sleep necessary for storing memories stress hormones—adrenalin, cortisol can make flashbulb memories of emotional events BUT can corrupt hippocampus over time temporal lobe Unit 2 Research Methods AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS I. Research Methods (Mod 2) applied vs. basic research case study cohort cohort sequential confounding variables control group correlation (negative vs. positive) correlation coefficient counterbalancing critical thinking cross-sectional study dependent vs. independent variable double-blind experiment—lab vs. field experimenter bias experimental group false consensus effect group matching Hawthorne effect—fact that you have been chosen for an experiment/research study makes you behave differently than you would otherwise (condfounding variable) hindsight bias hypothesis illusory correlation AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS longitudinal study naturalistic observation null hypothesis operational definitions participant relevant vs. situation relevant variable placebo population random assignment random sample representative sample replication (ability to redo a study and get same results—important element for proving reliability of data and conclusions) sampling single-blind procedure social desirability stratified sample survey method theory II. Ethical guidelines (Mod 2) animal vs. human subjects debriefing of subjects Institutional Review Board (IRB) informed consent III. Statistics (Mod 3) AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Descriptive statistics histogram measures of central tendency mean, median, mode negative vs. positive skew outliers Measures of variability Normal curve Percentiles Range Standard deviation Variance Z-scores correlation coefficient scatterplot line of best fit Inferential statistics p value statistical significance Reliability split half test-retest AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS alternate form Validity concurrent content/face construct predictive Unit 3: Neuropsychology Neurons & neurotransmission – direction of flow = in dendrite, cell body (soma), out axon through terminal buttons myelin sheath – speeds transmission (problem in multiple sclerosis is that the sheath breaks down communication between brain/spine and muslces) Nodes of Ranvier (only on myelinated axons) Afferent neurons (sensory—receive incoming stimuli) Efferent neurons (motor—send outgoing messages from interneurons to muscles) Interneurons (CNS—internal communication of brain and spine) mirror neurons Long-term potentiation synapse (gap/cleft) Action potential Resting potential – neg. charge inside neuron (-70 mV) AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS All-or-none principle Refractory period depolarization, hyperpolarization, repolarization Neurotransmitters—Excitatory/inhibitory Acetylcholine (ACh) (lost in Alzheimers, too much if bitten by black widow because spider’s venom is agonist for ACh, not enough if use botox because botox is antagonist for ACh) Dopamine (the happy neurotransmitter—it is released when we are doing something that makes us feel good –e.g. sex, eating, pursuit of a goal, also functions to keep you alert, focused…cocaine is dopamine agonist that causes abnormally high amounts of dopamine to hang out in brain because the cocaine binds to axon’s reuptake valves; amphetamines/speed are also dopamine agonists—make person very alert, Ritalin used to treat ADHD agonist for dopamine helps ADHD people focus…..TOO MUCH linked with schizophrenia, TOO LITTLE linked with nervous disorder Parkinson’s disease) GABA—major inhibitory, calms the nervous system by inhibiting action potentials serotonin—mood, sleep, appetite, memory (deficient in people with anxiety or depression) endorphins (mnemonic end your pain, the body’s natural morphine makes you feel REALLY GOOD, released during sex, eating spicy food, extreme exercise, major injury to aid in survival—heroine and other opiates (e.g. codeine, morphine, opium) are agonists for endorphins Because brain is getting flooded with endorphins, over time neurons will stop producing endorphins so person is left with lower levels than before taking the drug— this causes withdrawal symptoms) glutamate—major excitatory, memory and learning (mnemonic--acts as glue for learning) TOO MUCH liked with headaches agonists (make neurons fire—they are chemicals so similar in structure to natural neurotransmitters that they either bind to dendritic receptors causing action potential OR they prevent reuptake of brain’s neurotransmitters by binding to axon’s reuptake valves) antagonists (make neurons NOT fire by binding to dendritic receptors and blocking them off from brain’s natural neurotransmitters—think antagonist from literature, stirring up trouble by blocking up all the locks in doors so nobody can get in and there isn’t any action) reuptake and reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs—prevent reputake of serotonin to help people with depression or anxiety) AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS CNS – brain & spinal cord Peripheral nervous system – autonomic & somatic autonomic – parasympathetic (parachute calms you) & sympathetic (amps you up for flight or fight) Brain How to study – lesions (Phineas Gage), HM case study, split brain patients, lobotomy EEG – brain wave activity CAT or CT scan – x-rays of structure MRI - structure PET – radioactive glucose measures activity fMRI – structure & activity Hindbrain medulla – breathing pons – arousal, sleep cerebellum –movement, procedural/implicit memory Midbrain reticular formation (or reticular activating system/RAS) arousal, attention (mnemonic--tickle!) Forebrain (includes limbic system AHH!)Thalamus – sensory switchboard Hypothalamus – regulator, director of pituitary, metabolism, endocrine system Amygdala – emotional core, linked with traumatic, emotional memories, flight or fight response, aggression Hippocampus – encoding memory Cerebral cortex (outer layer of brain—contains all lobes, gyra folds, and association areas) Hemispheric specialization or lateralization split-brain studies (severed corpus callosum) AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Association areas (not involved in sensation or motor function; parts of cortex responsible for language, comprehension) Contralateral control (right brain controls left side of body and vice versa) Funky Moms Smoke Pot On Thursdays (names of the lobes and cortices and their primary functions and what results form damage to tehse areas)) Broca’s area and aphasia (it’s broken so I can’t talk) Wernicke’s area and aphasia (its wrecked so I speak gibberish and have trouble understanding language) prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces due to injury to right temporal lobe) angular gyrus (language comprehension) corpus callosum (connects 2 hemispheres) AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Unit 4 Development and nature nurture debate behavior geneticists identical (monozygotic) vs. fraternal twins molecular genetics temperament chromosomes (how many and what are they?) heritability DNA evolutionary psychology Genes and gene complexes natural selection human genome mutations culture testosterone norms hermaphrodite/intersex individualism in utero collectivism gender roles genotype androgeny phenotype gender identity epigenome gender-typed gender and aggression rates social learning theory on gender male answer syndrome gender schema theory zygote reflexes embryo rooting—try to suckle if cheek stroked fetus sucking teratogen Moro—startle reflex in utero Babinski—toes spread out if bottom foot stroked FAS (Fetal alcohol syndrome) habituation AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS milestones physical social mental language maturation gross motor skills vs. fine motor skills Piaget cognitive development schemas attachment secure attachment authoritarian insecure attachment authoritative permissive assimilate accommodate sensorimotor stage object permanence preoperational stage parenting styles o avoidant o ambivalent/anxious o RAD imprinting (Konrad Lorenz) critical period (vision, speech?) autism egocentric thinking Asperger syndrome (part of autism spectrum—higher functioning than severe autism) theory of mind separation anxiety (Ainsworth strange situation) false belief test self concept concrete operational stage principle of conservation formal operational stage Vygotsky’s mental scaffolding and zone of proximal development AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS adolescence primary sex characteristics—female vs. male secondary sex characteristics— female vs. male menarche spermarche neural pruning frontal lobe growth Kohlberg’s theory of moral development preconventional morality conventional morality postconventional morality moral relativism (it depends…) Erikson’s psychosocial development theory Freud’s psychosexual theory of development trust vs. mistrust oral stage autonomy vs. shame/doubt anal stage initiative vs. guilt phallic stage industry vs. inferiority latency identity vs. role confusion genital stage intimacy vs. isolation erogenous zones generativity vs. stagnation libido ego integrity vs. despair penis envy self-esteem castration complex inferiority complex womb envy Oedipus complex Electra complex moral absolutism (there is an absolute right or wrong, regardless of circumstances) empathy menopause crystallized intelligence andropause fluid intelligence Alzheimer’s disease social clock dementia rite of passage cross-sectional study continuity vs. stage theory longitudinal study stability vs. change anal fixations anal retentive anal expulsive oral fixations id vs. ego battle id traits ego traits AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Unit 5: Sensation and perception mechanical energy neural energy transduction bottom-up vs. top-down processing sensory compensation sensory adaptation selective attention inattentional blindness change blindness change deafness choice blindness choice blindness-blindness pop-out phenomenon top-down processing phantom sensations absolute thresholds for each sense psychophysics subliminal messages difference threshold (JND) Weber’s law signal detection theory perceptual set perceptual adaptation AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS context effects human factors ESP telepathy clairvoyance precognition psychokinesis Figure-ground Gestalt rules of grouping proximity similarity continuity closure connectedness Perceptual Constancies size shape brightness the Ponzo illusion role of culture on illusions lightness and color constancies Depth perception Visual cliff experiments– crawlers have perception of depth Binocular cues (both eyes needed for these cues) binocular (or retinal) disparity convergence (muscle movement) Monocular cues (can perceive as well with one eye as with two) AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Linear perspective Relative size Interposition Texture gradient Shadowing relative motion (parallax) relative height Illusions Visual capture Muller-Lyer (lines with arrows) – culture affects perception phi phenomenon (blinking lights appear to travel) stroboscopic movement (flip books, cartoons) McGurk effect Vision accommodation cornea pupil iris lens retina rods cones bipolar cells ganglion cells optic nerve fovea Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) – region in thalamus for vision AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Occipital lobes blind spot Hubel & Wiesel – feature detectors Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory Opponent-process theory – afterimages (red/green, yellow/blue, black/white) color constancy nature of light waves (wavelength, hue, intensity) acuity color blindness nearsightedness narsightedness Audition nature of audio waves: amplitude and frequency Anatomy of ear Outer ear, middle ear, inner ear pinna auditory canal ear drum (tympanic membrane) ossicles—hammer, anvil, stirrup oval window cochlea organ of Corti basilar membrane semicircular canals auditory nerve AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS temporal lobe Place theory – hairs react to certain frequencies in a certain place Frequency theory – hairs fire at different rates to match frequency Hearing loss & restoration conduction hearing loss sensorineural hearing loss cochlear implants tinnitus Touch & Pain basic 4 sensations that the skin detects rubber hand illusion hyperalgesia congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis (CIPA) Melzack’s gate-control theory of pain endorphins in regards to pain taper-down treatment Lamaze method 3D virtual realities gustation—sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami olfaction—olfactory bulb sensory interaction Vestibular (balance – semicircular canals) & kinesthetic (body position, orientation) Sleep circadian rhythm AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS owl vs. lark superchiasmatic nucleus pineal gland melatonin—darkness signals pineal to make more, lightness signals less adenosine—builds throughout day makes tired at night Sleep cycle Sleep onset Stages 1-4 REM sleep alpha waves theta waves delta waves sleep spindles hypnagogic sensations paradoxical sleep REM paralysis Progression of sleep cycle in typical night’s sleep Sleep disorders insomnia somnambulism night terrors sleep talking narcolepsy enuresis sleep apnea AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Dream theories Psychoanalytic theory: manifest content latent content activation-synthesis theory information-processing theory housekeeping hypothesis Drugs psychological vs. physiological addiction misconceptions about addiction categories of drugs & their properties stimulants (cocaine, caffeine, nicotine, speed) depressants (barbiturates, valium, xanax, anxiolytics) opioids (special category of depressants—morphine, codeine, heroine, opium) hallucinogens (LSD, shrooms, marijuana, ectasy) tolerance reverse tolerance withdrawal agonists (cocaine dopamine reuptake inhibitor agonist; heroine endorphin agonist) AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS How we think: concepts Other flaws with heuristics schemata (Piaget’s theory) images 1. overconfidence 2. belief bias 3. belief perseverance prototypes a. Corneille’s experiment with ethnically mixed faces Problem solving 1. algorithm 2. 3. heuristic—Tversky and Kahneman a. availability b. representativeness insight Common weaknesses in problem solving 1. a. role of right temporal lobe b. role of unconscious processing functional fixedness 2. confirmation bias 3. framing Perils and powers of intuition a. rigidity (AKA mental set) chicken sexers Creative thinking Divergent thinking – multiple possible answers Convergent thinking - synthesis AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Parts of language: phonemes morphemes syntax Timeline of language acquisition—infancy through childhood receptive language productive language babbling stage holophrastic stage telegraphic stage 3-word stage overgeneralization/overregularization (supports Chomsky’s theory of language acquisition) 2. Skinner’s operant theory a. association b. reinforcement c. imitation a. inborn universal grammar b. language acquisition device c. surface structure and deep structure Critical period for language—is there one? Reciprocal nature of language, thinking, learning & culture 1. Whorf’s linguistic determinism hypothesis (AKA linguistic relativity hypothesis) 2. Cultural influence on language 3. Imagery and learning Animals and thinking & language 1. Examples of animals employing heuristics 2. Examples of “cultural” differences between animals of same species living in different regions 3. Theory of mind, mirror recognition results for dolphins 4. Examples of and debate over animals using language (through sign or word/symbol boards) a. Washoe the chimp b. Alex the parrot Language acquisition theories: 1. Chomsky’s theory c. Koko the gorilla d. Kanzi the pygmy chimp AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS intelligence IQ fluid vs. crystallized savant syndrome 4. Sternberg – triarchic theory (CAP) factor analysis Theories of intelligence 1. Spearman – a. g factor (general intelligence) 2. Thurstone – primary mental abilities (7 intelligences) analytical experiential or creative practical 5. Emotional intelligence (Mayer and Salovey) perception of emotions understanding emotions a. word fluency managing emotions b. verbal comprehension using emotions c. spatial ability d. perceptual speed e. numerical ability f. inductive reasoning g. memory 3. Gardner – multiple intelligence linguistic logical-mathematical spatial musical kinesthetic intrapersonal interpersonal natural 6. Goleman – EQ emotional quotient Measuring brain function Perceptual speed—how long a person’s sensory organs need exposure to a stimulus in order to perceive it (some people are able to perceive things accurately after very brief exposure while others need longer exposure to fully perceive it.) Neurological speed—how quickly the communication occurs between neurons while processing information AP Psychology Semester 1 Final Exam Review Chamberlain 2012-13 EHS Alfred Binet mental age Lewis Terman Stanford-Binet test Principles of test construction standardization normal curve reliability William Stern IQ David Wechsler WAIS (for adults) WISC (ages 6-16) WPPSI (ages 4-6) test retest split half alternate tests validity —verbal comprehension content criterion o predictive validity o concurrent validity —perceptual organization —working memory —processing speed Kinds of tests & what they measure aptitude achievement Extremes of intelligence Mental retardation (different levels based on IQ range of 0-70) Down syndrome Talented/gifted and genius What causes IQ? heritability stereotype threat