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Transcript
Macromolecules A. Monomers- subunits from which macromolecules are built: 1. Monosaccharide 2. Amino Acid 3. Nucleic Acid 4. Fatty Acids and Glycerol B. Polymers-consist of many similar monomers linked by covalent bonds to form macromolrcules: 1. Carbohydrates 2. Proteins 3. Lipids 4. Nucleic Acids C. Condensation- AKA Dehydration Synthesis- reaction to connect monomers to build polymers. 1. one monomer provides a hydroxyl and the other provides a hydrogen to form H2O, then a covalent bond forms between the left over atoms. 2. These are anabolic reactionsrequire enzymes, energy, and monomer building blocks. ____________ . ______________ D. Hydrolysis- covalent bonds in polymers are broken down by adding H2O 1. a hydrogen and a hydroxyl group from a split water molecule attaches where the covalent bond between monomers used to be. 2. these are catabolic reactions which dominate the digestion, and require energy and enzymes Carbohydrates A. Composed of C:H2O ratios B. Serve as energy sources for humans and animals ex. glucose C. Serve as structural components for plants ex. cellulose D. Simple Sugars: aka. Monosaccharides 1. most sugars end in –ose 2. have carbonyl and multiple hydroxyl groups 3. if the carbonyl group is at the end, the sugar is an aldose; if not, it is a ketose ex. Glucose C6H12O6 is an aldose ex. Fructose C6H12O6 is a ketose Glucose and Fructose are structural isomers 4. Classified by the # of Carbons in the backbone: ex. Glucose and Fructose are Hexose s 5. Some monosaccharides are enantiomers; which have the same molecular formula but, differ in the spatial arrangement about an asymmetrical Carbon ex. Glucose and Galactose 6. Linear sugars form covalent rings to increase stability in aqueous solutions - OH of C #1 up is the - OH of C #1 down is the E. Disaccharides- double sugars 1. ex. Sucrose- composed of fructose and glucose bound by condensation synthesis aka. Glycosidic Linkage F. Polysaccharide- polymers of monosaccharides 1. energy storage 2. building blocks 3. monomers (usually Glucose) are joined by 1-4 glycosidic linkages 4. ex. Cellulose- component of plant cell walls – is a polymer of beta 1-4 glycosidic linkages between glucoses - linked structures are linear, which allows H atoms on one strand to form H-bonds with OH atoms on another strand form strong microfibrils for structure in plants 5. Human enzymes do NOT recognize glycosidic linkages and cannot digest cellulose a. cellulose is an insoluble FIBER that passes through our digestive tract and scours it clean plus stimulates the production of mucus to keep it lubricated. b. Cellulase enzymes in microbes do digest cellulose into glucoses 1. eukaryotic herbivores have Symbiotic relationships with Cellulolytic microbes that break down the cellulose for them 6. Starch is a polysaccharide of 1-4 Glycosidic linkages a. Amylose- unbranched starch forms a helix b. Amylopectin- branched helix - storage macromolecules in plants stores Carbon and energy - animal enzymes recognize the 1-4 Glycosidic bond and can break down starch when needed for energy or Carbon to support metabolism c. Glycogen- Animal Starch, branched for storage in animals 7. Chitin- structural polysaccharide a. exoskeleton of arthropods b. cell walls of Fungi c. contains Nitrogen d. similar to cellulose in structure Lipids Hydrophobic Substances (structure are held together by non-polar, covalent bonds) A. Fats- long-term energy storage in animals and Humans 1. adipose tissue- stores fat 2. 9 calories per gram 3. insulation- fats do not conduct heat homeostasis 4. cushion vital organs 5. Triglycerides: composed of 3 fatty acids joined to one glycerol through dehydration synthesis (condensation) a. Fatty acids composed of a long hydrocarbon skeleton that are Hydrophobic, attached to one carboxyl group (COOH) 1.fatty acids may vary in length ie. # of Carbons 2. fatty acids may vary in the # and location of C=C a. saturated fatty acids1. have NO C=C. 2. saturated with H 3. yield more calories 4. solid at room temp. 5. animal fats a diet rich in saturated fats contributes to atherosclerosis, hardening of the arteries through plaque deposit. b. unsaturated fatty acids1. Have C=C -kinks at double bonds prevent tight packing 2. Liquid at room temp. 3. Plant & fish oil 4.Yield less cal. -One double bond yield less energy than two single bonds b. Glycerolcomposed of a three Carbon skeleton with a hydroxyl attached to each 1. one glycerol and three fatty acids combine through a type of condensation (dehydration synthesis) that results in ester bonds yielding a triglycerol __________ . _________ - all triglycerides are hydrophobic B. Phospholipids- composed a glycerol attached to two fatty acids and a phosphate group, which may have additional groups attached to it. 1. Amphipathic molecule – a molecule that has both a polar and a non-polar region a. polar head PO4= hydrophilic b. non-polar tail (fatty acids) hydrophobic 2. Micelle- structure that forms when an amphipathic molecules combines with H2O. a. hydrophilic heads on the outside (in contact with water) b. hydrophobic tails on the inside (out of the reach of water) 3. Cellular membranescomposed of phospholipid bilayers. a. two layers of phospholipids with the heads facing the extra and intra cellular aqueous fluids and the tails facing each other. C. SteroidsLipid compounds with Carbon skeletons consisting of fused rings with functional groups attached. 1. Cholesterola. precursor from which all steroids are synthesized b. HDL- high density lipoproteins are the “good” cholesterol. -Reduces cholesterol deposition in arteries -exercise increases HDL -HDL levels should be 45 mg/dl and above c. LDL- low density lipoprotein is the ‘bad’ cholesterol. -increases the deposition of cholesterol inside arteries: -atherosclerosisnarrowing of arteries -arteriosclerosishardening of arteries -hypertensionelevated blood pressure above 120/80 -LDL levela should be below 130 2. Hormones: Estrogen, Testosterone Proteins Polypeptides are polymers of amino acids connected in specific sequences A. Function-depends on conformation 1. Structural macromolecules: muscle, collagen, bone 2. Storage of a.a. ex. Casein 3. Transport- ex. HDL/LDL 4. Hormones- Insulin 5. Cell membrane components 6. Antibodies 7. Enzymes B. polypeptides are polymers of Amino Acids (20) connected in a specific sequence (determined by the genetic code) synthesized in the Ribosome with resources such as, mRNA tRNA, ATP, and enzymes. C. Amino Acids: H H2N C COOH R20 -The physical and chemical characteristics of the R group determine the unique characteristics of a particular amino acid 1. Hydrophobic amino acids: Have non-polar R groups 2. Hydrophilic Amino Acids Have polar R groups 3. Ionizing Amino Acids Have acid or basic R groups Which ionize at cellular pH D. Nutritional Sources of a.a. meat, poultry, fish, dairy, nuts, legumes, soy, eggs 1. Essential a.a. Out of the 20 a.a. 8 are needed in the diet, since the body does not make them Tryptophan Methionine Valine Threonine Phenylalanine Leucine Isoleucine Lysine 2. Non-Essential not required in diet since the body synthesizes them E. Peptide Bond- type of bond that unites amino acids. 1. dehydration synthesis condensation occurs with the removal of an OH group from the COOH end of one a.a. and a H from the NH2 of another a.a. a. water if formed and b. a covalent bond forms between the two a.a.