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Biology Review Go to http://www.usatestprep.com/front/login.php Username is Grayson Student Password is Newton98 Click “Accept” below the password boxes. Click on the Microscope Icon that is entitled “Science” at the top left hand corner of the screen. On this page you will see the general breakdown of the End Of Coarse Test (EOCT). Biochemistry • 4 organic compounds: – Proteins: • made up of amino acids. • Control all chemical reactions in the body. • Enzymes: proteins that speed up the rate of a chemical reaction. – Carbohydrates: examples are starch and sugar. • Building block monosaccarides • Provide cell with energy – Lipids: examples are fats • Insulate the body and serve as long term energy reserve. • Make up of a glycerol and 3 fatty acid chains – Nucleic Acids: examples are DNA and RNA • The genetic code for life. • Basic building block is called nucleotide (sugar, phosphate, nitrogen base) Characteristics of Life • Living things… – – – – – – – – Are made of cells Reproduce Are based on a universal genetic code Grow and develop Obtain and use materials for energy Respond to their environment Maintain stable internal conditions (Homeostasis) Change over time • • • Cells Eukaryote – has a nucleus and organelles (Protist, fungi, plant, animal cells) Prokaryote – NO nucleus or membrane bound organelles (Ex. Bacteria) Animal cells vs. Plant cells – Plant cell has cell wall and chloroplast – Animal has lysosome – Cell Parts and Functions: • • • • • • • • • • • • • Nucleus- control center of cell Cell Wall- protects plant cell Cell membrane- allows materials to move in and out of cell Cytoplasm- holds organelles in place in the cell Endoplasmic Reticulum- contains ribosomes, transportation system of the cell Ribosomes- makes proteins Golgi Body- organizes and packages materials for cell Mitochondria- provides energy for cell Vacuole- stores materials for cell Chloroplast- site of protein synthesis in plant cell Lysosome- breaks down food in animal cell Chromosomes- found in nucleus, contain genetic information Cell Theory – All living things made of cells – Cells are basic unit of structure and function of living things – New cells are produced from living cells Cell Processes • • • • Diffusion – Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration across a membrane – Passive transport (requires no energy) Osmosis – Diffusion of water across a membrane – Passive transport Facilitated Diffusion – Diffusion of glucose (large molecule) across a membrane – Passive transport Active Transport – Movement from a low concentration to high concentration (against the flow) – Requires energy Cell Processes • Endocytosis – Cell membrane engulfs particle to bring it inside – Active transport • Exocytosis – Cell membrane sends out particle to get rid of it – Active transport Photosynthesis • 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 • Takes place in PLANTS (chloroplasts) – Light Dependent Reaction (in Grana) • Requires light energy • NADP and H join to form NADPH • Oxygen gas given off as a byproduct – Light Independent Reaction (in Stroma) • ATP + NADPH join, using CO2 • Sugars (C6H12O6) given off as a byproduct Cellular Respiration • Process of breaking down food molecules to release energy • C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O – Opposite of photosynthesis • 3 main stages – Glycolosis - C6H12O6 broken in half to make pyruvic acid • If oxygen present – goes to Krebs Cycle • If no oxygen present – goes to Fermentation – Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle) – takes out oxygen and pyruvic acid turned into CO2; enzymes combine hydrogen and oxygen to form H2O – Fermentation • Alcoholic fermentation – yeasts and other microorganisms use pyruvic acid to make CO2 (makes bread rise) • Lactic Acid fermentation – muscle cells convert pyruvic acid to lactic acid Cell Division • Mitosis – Division of somatic cells (all cells in the body EXCEPT gametes (sperm/eggs) – Interphase: chromosomes appear – Prophase: chromosomes condense chromatin; pair up to make sister chromatids – Metaphase: chromatids lined up in center (metaphase plate) – Anaphase: chromatids separate and pull to opposite ends of cells – Telophase: chromosomes uncondense; nucleus forms around them – Cytokenesis: cell splits into two daughter cells • End Result – Two new daughter cells are formed. – Each daughter cell has same number of chromosomes as parent cell Cell Division • Meiosis – Division of gametes (sperm and eggs) – Same process as mitosis, but it does 2 cycles • Interphase 1 – Prophase 1 – Metaphase 1 – Anaphase 1 – Telophase 1 – Cytokenesis – 2 daughter cells formed with 2 copies of every chromosome – They go on to divide again • Interphase 2 – Prophase 2 – Metaphase 2 – Anaphase 2 – Telophase 2 – Cytokenesis – Now 4 daughter cells are formed (2 cells from cycle 1 have divided again) – Each daughter cell now has 1 copy of every chromosome (will join with other chromosomes during fertilization) • End Result –4 daughter cells are formed. - Each cell has half the number of chromosomes as the parent. DNA • Deoxyribonucleic Acid- double stranded. • Found inside of nucleus in cells • Cells read DNA code sequences and translate them using the sequences of 4 bases – Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine – A-T G-C • The way these bases pair up determines what proteins are made RNA • Ribonucleic Acid- single stranded • Messenger RNA – mRNA – reads DNA “code” and carries it to ribosome • Ribosomal RNA – rRNA – makes up the ribosome where proteins are made • Transfer RNA – tRNA – transfers each amino acid needed for protein synthesis as coded by mRNA from DNA • No Thymine (T) Uracil (U) – A-U G-C Genetics • The scientific study of heredity (passing of traits from one generation to the next) • Dominant Allele: the trait that always shows physically and is represented by a CAPITAL LETTER. – Example: BB or Bb • Recessive Allele: only shows if the dominant allele is not present and is represented by a lowercase letter. – Example: bb • Punnett Square: diagram showing gene combinations that might result from a genetic cross. • Homozygous: organism with 2 identical alleles (also called true breeding) – Example: TT or tt • Heterozygous: organism with 2 different alleles (also called hybrid) – Example: Tt Genetics • Phenotype: physical characteristic of the organism. – Example: Tall plant • Genotype: genetic makeup of the organism. – Example: Tt, TT, tt • Incomplete Dominance: one allele is not dominant over another. – Example: Red flower is crossed with white flower to produce a pink flower. Genetics • Codominance: both alleles of the genes contribute to the phenotype of the organism. – Example: Chicken with black feathers crossed with white feathered chicken appears speckled with black and white feathers. • Polygenic Traits: trait controlled by 2 or more genes that shows a wider range of phenotypes. – Example: range of skin color in humans. • Gene Map: diagram showing the relative locations of each known gene on a particular chromosome. Ecology • • • • • • • • Study of interactions among organisms and their environment Abiotic factors – not living (water, air) Biotic factors – living (animals, plants) Levels of organization (smallest to largest) – Individual Species (can breed & produce offspring) – Population (same species in the same area) – Community (different populations in the same area) – Ecosystem (all organisms in a particular place – biotic only) – Biome (group of ecosystems with same climate) – Biosphere (all parts of earth – abiotic and biotic) Heterotrophs/Consumers – cannot make their own food (must eat something else) (humans) Autotrophs/Producers – make their own food (plants) Food web- overlapping food chains Biomass- total amount of living tissue at each level of a food chain. Highest amount of biomass is at producer level. Ecology • Relationships between organisms – Mutualism – both benefit • Bees and flowers (bees get nectar from flower, flower gets pollination done) – Commensalism – one benefits and other is not harmed or benefited • Whales and barnacles (barnacles live on whales and eat little organisms – whale not helped or harmed) – Parasitism – one benefits one harmed • Humans and tapeworms (tapeworm lives in intestines and gets nutrients that are supposed to go to human’s body – human suffers from malnutrition) Ecology • Biomes: – Tropical rain forest • Hot, humid, lots of rain, lots of plants and animals • Found in South America, SE Asia, Southern India, NE Australia (along equator) – Deciduous forest • Warm year round, rainy/dry seasons, rich soils • Found in Africa, Central America, Mexico, India, Australia, tropical islands – Savanna (grasslands) • Warm, seasonal rain, isolated shrubs and trees (picture the setting of The Lion King) • Found in East Africa, Southern Brazil, Northern Australia – Desert • Low/no rain, variable temperatures, soils have lots of minerals but no nutrients (therefore, rare plant growth) • Found in Africa, Middle East, U.S., Mexico, South America, Australia – Tiaga • Long,/cold winters, mild summers, moderate rain, high humidity • Found in North America (Canada and Alaska), Asia, northern Europe Ecology • Biomes (continued) – Grassland • Warm/hot summers, lush grasses (fire and cold resistant) • Found in central Asia, North America, Australia, Europe – Chaparral • Hot/dry summers, wet winters, thin soils, evergreen shrubs and trees • Western coasts of N. America and S. America, areas around the Mediterranean Sea, South Africa, Australia – Temperate Forest (Alpine) • Cold to moderate winters, warm summers, year round rain, fertile soils • Coniferous trees (produce cones), shrubs, deciduous trees • Found in Eastern U.S., SE Canada, most of Europe, Japan, China, Australia – Northwestern Coniferous Forest • Mild temps, lots of rain during fall/winter/spring, cool/dry summer • Found in NW U.S., SW Canada (basically all along the coast of Northern California to Alaska) – Tundra • Permafrost (permanently frozen), strong winds, low rain • North America (northern Canada, Alaska), Asia, and Europe (towards North Pole) Classification • • Taxonomy – process of classifying organisms into similar categories (based on structure and function) 7 levels of classification (largest to smallest) – Kingdom• 6 kingdoms (Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia) – Phylum – Class – Order – Family – Genus – Species- 2 species that can interbreed and reproduce Scientific name is the genus and the species name put together. Example: Canis lupus (common name is wolf) Evolution • Natural Selection – “survival of the fittest” – Those organisms who are better adapted to live in their environments will survive, others less adapted will die off • Mutations – Change in the sequence of DNA, creates variation in gene pool • Variation – Differences among a population due to mutations and other members coming in from surrounding areas • Gene Shuffling – Genes shuffle around during the process of gamete formation, changes the combinations possible during reproduction • Immigration – New members of population move into area from outside areas – brings in new genes • Emigration – Members of population leave to go to a different area – takes genes to a new area Bacteria and Viruses • Prokaryotes - bacteria • Single celled organisms with no nucleus • Autotrophs (can make their own food) OR Heterotrophs (cannot make their own food) • Bacteria belong to kingdom Monera • Viruses do not belong to a kingdom because they do not share enough characteristics with anyone, and they are not made of cells. • Bacteria can be killed with antibiotics • No treatment/cures for viruses • Examples – Bacteria – sinus infections, pink eye, pneumonia – Viruses – HIV/AIDS, herpes, flu, measles, mumps, chicken pox Protists • • • • Kingdom protista Eukaryote Can be single celled or multicellular Groups – Animal like – animal characteristics • • • • Zooflagellates – have flagella, live in lakes and streams Sarcodines – amoeba, move by pseudopods, found all over the Earth Ciliates – paramecium, move by cilia, found in salt/fresh water Sporozoans – cause diseases (malaria), found in animals as parasites – Plant like - plant characteristics • • • • • Euglenophytes – euglena, flagella, found in water Dinoflagellates – red tide Chrysophytes – green and golden algae Diatoms – glass cases, used in toothpaste/road paint Algae – Red algae – deep in ocean – Brown algae (kelp) - oceans – Green algae – water and moist lands – Fungus like – fungi characteristics • Slime molds • Water molds Fungi • • • • Eukaryotes Heterotrophs (cannot make their own food) Have cell walls Types – – – – Molds (cheese, bread) Sac fungi Club fungi (what we know as mushrooms) Imperfect fungi (no known reproductive cycle) Plants • • • • • members of Kingdom Plantae multicellular eukaryotes cells walls made of cellulose develop from multicellular embryos carry out photosynthesis using green pigments chlorophyll a and b Plants • 4 groups of plants classified by waterconducting tissues, seeds, flowers, and DNA – Bryophytes- no vascular tissue! • mosses and relatives – Seedless Vascular Plants • Club mosses, horsetails, ferns – Gymnosperms • Cycads, Ginkoes, Conifers (produce cones) – Angiosperms • Flowers • Monocots - one seed leaf (cotyledon) in embryo (examples are corn, wheat, lilies, orchids) • Dicots - two seed leaves (examples are roses, tomatoes, oaks) Plants • Life Cycles – Annuals – planted yearly, complete life cycle in one year – Biennials – plant every other year, complete life cycle in two years – Perennials – plant once, long life cycle over many years Invertebrates • No backbone • Phylums – Porifera (Sponges) – Cnidaria (jelly fish, sea anemones) – Platyhelminthes (flatworms – planaria) – Nematoda (roundworms – parasites that cause disease) – Annelida (segmented worms – earthworms) – Mollusca (squid, snail, slugs) – Arthropods (crabs, lobster, spiders, insects) – Echinoderms (starfish) Vertebrates- have backbone • Belong to Phylum Chordata: – – – – Nerve cord Gills slits at some point in life Tail that extends beyond anus at some point in life Notochord- precursor to a backbone • Classes – – – – – – – Agnatha- jawless fish Chondrichthyes- sharks, stingrays Osteichthyes- bony fish Amphibia- frog, toad, salamander Reptilia- turtle, snake, lizard, alligator, croc Aves- birds Mammals (Human, Bear) Human Body • Humans are most complex organisms • Body systems – – – – – – – – – – – Nervous (brain – controls body) Skeletal (bones – movement) Muscular (muscles – movement) Integumentary (skin – protection) Circulatory (heart – move materials around body) Respiratory (lungs – air movement) Digestive (stomach, etc. – digestion of food) Excretory (kidneys – remove waste from body) Endocrine (glands – regulate hormones) Reproductive (testes/ovaries – reproduction) Immune (many organs – protect against disease)