Download 6. Learning2

Learning
• Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior(or
behavior tendency)that occurs as a result of a person’s
interaction with the environment
• Learning occurs when the learner behaves differently
• Example –you learned computer skills when you operate the key
board and software more quickly than before
• Learning occurs –interaction with the environment—leads to
behavior change
• Learn through our senses-such as through study -observation
and experience
Learning
• Learning influences individual behavior and performance
through three elements of the MARS model
• Mars –Model of Individual Behavior and Results
Individual
Characteristics
Motivation
Situational
factors
Values
Personality
Perceptions
Emotions and
attitudes
Stress
Ability
Role Perception
Behavior and results
Learning
• Learning influences individual behavior and performance
through three elements of the MARS model
• First people acquire skills and knowledge through learning
opportunities-gives them competencies
• Second-Learning clarifies role perceptions –better understanding
of their tasks(importance of employee engagement)
• Third learning occurs through feedback which motivates
employees when they se that they are accomplishing their tasks
Learning Explicit and Tacit Knowledge
• When employees learn they acquire both explicit and tacit knowledge
• Explicit knowledge-is organized and can be communicated –
information you receive in a lecture –instructor packages and transfers
it to you
• Tacit knowledge-is not documented-is action oriented and known
below the level of consciousness
-Tacit knowledge-organization’s culture and a team’s implicit normsvalues and norms exist –difficult to describe and document
• Tacit knowledge is acquired through observation and direct
experience-Pilots acquire tacit knowledge –by directly experiencing the
complex interaction of behavior with machines response
Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which an individual
responds to some stimulus that would not
ordinarily produce such a response.
Key Concepts
• Unconditioned stimulus
• Unconditioned response
• Conditioned stimulus
• Conditioned response
Learning
• Behavior Modification : Learning through Reinforcement
• One of the oldest perspectives on learning called behavior
modification (also known as operant conditioning theory)
-Takes the rather extreme view that learning is completely
dependent on the environment
• Behavior modification does not question the notion that thinking
is part of learning process-but views human thoughts as
unimportant intermediate stages between behavior and the
environment
• The environment teaches us to alter our behaviors so that we
maximize positive consequences and minimize adverse
consequences
Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary
behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.
Key Concepts
• Reflexive (unlearned) behavior
• Conditioned (learned) behavior
• Reinforcement
Learning
• A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification
• The central objective of behavior modification is to change
behavior(B) by managing its antecedents(A) and
consequences(C)
Antecedents
What happens before
behavior
Behavior
What person says or
does
Consequences
What happens after
behavior
Operator switches off
the machine’s power
supply
Co-workers thank
operator for stopping the
machine
• Examples
Warning light flashes
on operators console
Learning
• Antecedents are important –behavior modification focuses
mainly on the consequences of behavior
• Consequences are events following a particular behavior that
influences its future occurrence
• People tend to repeat behaviors that are followed by pleasant
consequences and are less likely to repeat behaviors that are
followed by unpleasant consequences or no consequences at all
Learning
Contingencies of Reinforcement
• Behavior modification identifies four types of consequences that
strengthen –maintain-or weaken behavior
• Positive Reinforcement- punishment-negative reinforcement-extinction
Positive reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement-occurs when the introduction of a consequence
increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific
behavior
-Receiving a bonus after successfully completing an important project is
considered positive reinforcement
-why? It increases the probability that you will use those behaviors in
future
Learning
Punishment
• Punishment-occurs when a consequence decreases the
frequency or future probability of a behavior
• This consequence typically involves introducing something that
employees try to avoid
-Demotion or being ostracized by co-workers as forms of
punishment
Learning
Negative reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement –occurs when the removal or avoidance
of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future
probability of a specific behavior
-Supervisors apply negative reinforcement when stop criticizing
employees whose substandard performance has improved
• When the criticism is withheld employees are more likely to
repeat behaviors that improved their performance
• Negative reinforcement is not punishment
• It reinforces behavior by removing punishment
Learning
Extinction
• Extinction –occurs when the target behavior decreases because
no consequence follows it
• Behavior that is no longer reinforced tends to disappear –it
becomes extinct
• Managers stop congratulating employees for their good
performance –that performance tends to decline
• Which contingency of reinforcement should we use in the
learning process?
Types of Reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement
– Providing a reward for a desired behavior.
• Negative reinforcement
– Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired
behavior occurs.
• Punishment
– Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an
undesirable behavior.
• Extinction
– Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its
cessation.
Types of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Along with the types of reinforcement –the frequency and timing
of those reinforces also influence employee behavior
• Reinforcement schedules can be continuous or intermittent
• The most effective reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks
is continuous reinforcement-providing positive reinforcement
schedule after every occurrence of the desired behavior
Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
each time it is demonstrated.
Intermittent Reinforcement
A desired behavior is reinforced
often enough to make the
behavior worth repeating but not
every time it is demonstrated.
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-Interval Schedule
Rewards are spaced at
uniform time intervals.
Variable-Interval Schedule
Rewards are initiated after a
fixed or constant number of
responses.
Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Fixed-ratio
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement
Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d)
Theories of Learning (cont’d)
Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation
and direct experience.
Three related features of social learning
theory
• Behavior modeling –through observation
(tacit knowledge)
• Learning behavior consequences-logic and
observation-experience of others –vicarious learning
• Self Reinforcement –less dependent on supervisors to
dole out positive reinforcement and punishment
Learning
Learning through Experience
• Motorola HR manager-testing her leadership skills
• Many organizations are shifting their learning strategy away from the
classroom and toward a more experiential approach
• Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model-is a cyclical four stage process
Concrete
experience
Active
experimentation
Abstract
conceptualiz
ation
Reflective
observation
Experiential Learning in Practice
• Learning through experience works best in organizations with a
strong learning orientation
• Learning orientation –The extent that an organization or
individual supports knowledge management-particularly
opportunities to acquire knowledge through experience and
experiments
Experiential Learning in Practice
• Organizations achieve a learning orientation culture by rewarding
experimentation and recognizing mistakes as a natural part of
the learning process
• Encourage employees to take risks to discover new and better
ways of doing things
Experiential Learning in Practice
Action learning
• A variety of experiential learning activities in which employees
are involved in a real complex and stressful problem
-in teams with immediate relevance to the company
• Tasks becomes the source of learning
• Action learning requires concrete experience with a real
organizational problem or opportunity followed by learning
meetings in which participants reflect on their observations
about the problem or opportunity