Download bio eoc study guide

Year 2013-14
9th grade BIOLOGY STUDY GUIDE
Caution – Please use this as reference material only. Read the textbook thoroughly for each of
the topics on your review guide.
1. Unifying Themes of Biology:
o Cellular Structure/Function - Cell is the smallest unit capable of life’s function.
o Reproduction - All living things reproduce. Is essential.
o Metabolism - All living things need energy to carry out diff. chem. reactions.
o Homeostasis - All living organisms must maintain a stable internal environment.
o Heredity - All living things are able to pass on traits to offspring w/ genes.
o Evolution - All living things undergo evolution. Happens after a long period of time
to adapt to life. Natural selection.
o Interdependence - Organisms depend on each other and the nonliving ecosystem.
2. Solving World Problems:
o Preserving Our Environment - Conservation and preservation of Earth’s environment.
(Recycle)
o Improving Food Supply - Genetic engineering = crops better. (Soil improvement)
o Understanding the Human Genome - Biologists are able to read every human gene.
o Fighting Diseases - Developing a new virus that targets 2 parts (AIDS); Anticancer
drugs prevent growth (cancer; Gene therapy (cystic fibrosis).
AIDS
AIDS is a fatal immune system disease that is caused by the other disease HIV. It is spread by
contact with other infected body fluids, such as sex, blood transfusion or otherwise. Research is
being made on a cure, but no one definite cure is found yet, as it changes from person to person.
Cancer
Another fatal disease in which cells have no stop function and keep replicating endlessly.
Nowadays we know how to avoid many kinds of cancer, but there are several kinds to which we
don’t know a cause nor a cure. For example, you should just simply not smoke to avoid lung
cancer and wear sunscreen to avoid skin cancer.
Gene therapy
this process where doctors remove the affected gene and replace it with a working version of it. It
is used to cure cystic fibrosis, a disease where mucus clogs up many of the body’s vital organs.
Stages of Scientific Investigation:
o
o
o
o
o
Collect Observations
Ask a Question
Form a Hypothesis
Make a Prediction
Test the Hypothesis
1
o Analyze Results
o Draw Conclusions
o Construct a Theory
4.Atoms - Smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down by chemical means.
Subatomic Particles - Electrons, protons, neutrons. Particles smaller than atoms.
Elements - Pure subs. made of only one kind of atom.
Isotopes - Atom w/ diff. number of protons and neutrons. e.g. C13, C14
Molecules - Group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
Compounds - Sub. made of the joined atoms of 2+ diff. elements.
5. Acids - Compounds that form hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. (Lemon, Vinegar)
Bases - Compounds that form hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. (Ammonia)
Buffers - Keep pH of a solution from changing too much when an acid or bas is added.
pH - Value used to express the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Ex: Lemon has a pH value of 2. Hand soap has a pH value of 10. And Household Ammonia has a
pH value of
6. Biomolecules- an organic molecule and especially a macromolecule in living organisms Ex:
Lipids, Nucleic Acids, Proteins, Carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates: organic compounds made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in the
proportion of 1:2:1.A monomer of carbohydrate is called monosaccharide. They are the Key
source of energy, and they’re found in most foods. Ex: Bread, Potatoes, Soda.
2
Lipids- nonpolar molecules that are not soluble or mostly insoluble in water. They are an
important part of the structure and functioning of cell membrane. Ex: Fats: glycerol and fatty acids,
Steroids, and Cholesterol.
Proteins- usually a large molecule formed by linked smaller molecules called amino acids.
Twenty different amino acids are found in proteins. Proteins called antibodies help your body
defend against infection. Proteins called have important structural functions. And other proteins
are enzymes and promote chemical reactions. Ex: Hemoglobin and keratin(in nails), collagen(in
skin)
3
Nucleic Acids- a long chain of smaller molecules called nucleotides. Ex: There are two types of
nucleic acids, RNA and DNA.
7. Enzymes - Substance that increases the speed of chemical reactions.
Properties
A) Just proteins
B) Substances that speed up chemical reactions
C) Enzymes are catalyses: they reduce activation energy of chemical reactions
D) Help maintain homeostasis
E) Enzymes end with –ASE
4
Activation Energy - The energy needed to start a chemical reaction.
Substrate - A substance in which an enzyme reacts.
Each enzyme can act on specific substrates. Amylase- Only starch
Catalase-Only hydrogen peroxide
1. A substrate attaches to an enzymes active site
2. The enzyme reduces the activation energy of the reaction
3. The enzyme is not changed by the reaction
Active Sites - A type of pocket in the enzyme where the substrate attaches to.
Enzyme Action:
o Enzyme attaches to a substance during a chemical reaction; the shape changes slightly
so the substrate fits in the active site.
o The enzyme and substrate react and the activation energy reduces, making the
substrate more likely to react.
o Reaction is complete when products have formed. The enzyme is now free to catalyze
further reactions.
-Factors affecting Enzymes



Temperature- Good at room temp or body tem
pH – good at Neutral
Chemicals –acids and bases can affect enzymes
8
5
9. Cell Organelles:
o Vesicles - Transports cells.
o Mitochondria - Harvests energy to make ATP.
o Nucleus - Stores DNA.
o Golgi Apparatus - Proteins are processed packaged off into new vesicles.
o Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - Helps transport proteins; Forms new vesicles.
o Lysosomes - Small, spherical organelles that contain the cell’s digestive enzymes.
o Ribosomes - Cellular structure on which proteins are made.
o Vacuole -Stores water and other subs. When full, plant stands upright.
o Smooth ER - Performs various functions. Makes lipids, breaks down various subs.
o Chloroplast - Uses light energy to make carbs. from carbon dioxide and water.
10. Active Transport: movement from low concentration to high concentration – ATP/ energy
is needed)
e.g.
o Sodium Potassium Pump - Uses ATP to transport 3 sodium ions out of a cell and 2
potassium ions into a cell. 1) Pump prevents sodium ions from accumulating in the
cell, as they continuously diffuse into the cell through ion channels. Would eventually
cause the cell to burst. 2) Helps maintain the concentration gradient of sodium and
potassium ions across the cell membrane.
11. Passive Transport: movement from high concentration to low concentration – no energy
needed
e.g.
o Osmosis - Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
o Diffusion - Movement of a substance from an area of high to low concentration.
6
o Facilitated Diffusion - Moves a substance down their concentration gradient w/o
using cell’s energy but with the help of a special CARRIER protein
12. Movement in Vesicles:
o Endocytosis - Movement of a substance into cell w/ a vesicle.
 Phagocytosis - Cell takes up a solid.
 Pinocytosis - Cell takes up a liquid.
o Exocytosis - Movement of a substance out of a cell w/ a vesicle.
13. Types of Pigments - Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids (red, orange, brown),
xanthophyll(yellow)
 Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration
Comparing Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis
Function
Energy capture
Cellular Respiration
Energy release
7
Location
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
Reactants
Carbon dioxide and water
Glucose and oxygen
Products
Glucose and oxygen
Carbon dioxide and water
Equation
6 carbon dioxide + 6 water  glucose +
6 oxygen
6 oxygen + glucose  6 carbon
dioxide + 6 water
 Cell membrane and its properties, lipid bilayer, membrane proteins
a. Cell membrane
 Selectively permeable due to phospholipids
 Only certain things are allowed in and out of cell
 Phospholipids- phosphate + 2 fatty acids. This can also be state as 1 polar head+ 2 nonpolar
tails.
b. Lipid bilayer( Draw)
 Compare and contrast the animal cell with the plant cell
a. Label the pictures- 1st is plant cell and 2nd is animal cell.
b. A plant cell has a cell wall, chloroplast, and a central vacuole while an animal cell doesn’t.
8
 Active transport- sodium-potassium pump
a. Active transport- cell moves materials in opposite direction against the concentration gradient
and needs energy( from an area of low concentration to an area of higher concentration)
b. Sodium-potassium pump
 Usually uses ATP to transport 3 sodium ions out of a cell and 2 potassium ions into a cell
 Draw in space provided.
 Passive transport- osmosis, diffusion, facilated diffusion
a. Passive transport- movement across the membrane that doesn’t require energy
b. Osmosis- diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane (draw in space provided).
c. Diffusion through ion channels- ion channels allow certain ions to pass through the cell
membrane.
d. Facilated diffusion- cell membrane has some carrier proteins in channels that allow certain
substances to be carried inside the cell.
 Hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions
If the fluid outside
Then outside fluid
Water diffuses…
Effect on cell
the cell has…
is…
…lower free water
concentration than
cytoplasm
…hypertonic.
…out of cell.
Cell shrinks.
…higher free
concentration than
cytoplasm
…hypotonic.
…into cell.
Cell swells.
…same free water
molecule
concentration as
cytoplasm
…isotonic.
…into and out of cell
at equal rates.
Cell stays same size.
9
14. Factors Affecting Photosynthesis:
o Light - Photosynthesis increases as light increases; levels off at saturation point.
o Concentration of CO2
o Temperature - Optimum temperatures needed.
o Enzymes - Can get denatured at unsuitable temperatures.
15. Cellular Respiration & Photosynthesis:
o Photosynthesis - 6CO2 + 6H2O sunlight C6H12O6+ 6O2. Captures energy in the
chloroplast.
o Cellular Respiration - C6H12O6 + 6O2 enzymes 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP
in Mitochondria
Photosynthesis



Absorption of light energy
Conversion of light energy
Storage of energy
Cellular respiration Stages:
a) Glycolysis
Conversion of glucose to pyruvates, Production of 2 ATP
b) Kreb’s cycle – 2 ATP and NADH & FADH2
c) Electron transport chain -34 ATP
Total electrons =38
16. Respiration in the absence of oxygen- FERMENTATION
Fermentation is the recycling of NAD+ using an organic hydrogen acceptor
Types:
a) Lactic Acid
Pyruvate ----------) Lactate
Lactate is produced in the muscle causes soreness
Makes cheese and yogurt
b) Alcoholic
10
Pyruvate----------) Ethanol
Ex. Yeast in food/ beverage
Bread, wine, dough, beer
17. Chromosome Structure Chromosome: DNA coiled around histone proteins
Chromatids: 2 exact copies of DNA that make up each chromosome
Centromere: Point at which centromatids attach .
18. Stages of Mitosis:
o Prophase
 Chromosomes become visible. Nuclear envelope dissolves. Spindles form.
o Metaphase
 Chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell.
o Anaphase
 Centromeres divide. Chromatids move toward opposite poles.
o Telephase
 Nuclear envelope forms. Chromosomes uncoil. Spindles dissolve.
o Cytokinesis Begins
RESULT – 2diploid cells made
19. Cytokinesis - Process during cell division in which the cytoplasm divides.
11
The cytoplasm of a cell is divided in half and cell membrane grows to enclose each cell, forming
two separate cells as a result. The end result is two genetically identical cells where only one
existed before.
12
20. Stages of
Meiosis:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Prophase I - Chromosomes become visible, crossing-over occurs.
Metaphase I - Chromosomes move to equator of cell.
Anaphase I - Chromosomes move to opposite poles.
Telephase I and Cytokinesis - Nuclear envelope forms, Cytoplasm divides.
Prophase II - New spindles form.
Metaphase II - Chromosomes line up at equator.
Anaphase II - Centromeres divide, chromatids move to opposite poles.
Telephase II and Cytokinesis - Nuclear envelope forms, Cytoplasm divides.
13
RESULT- 4 haploid cells
made
21. 7 Traits of Mendel’s Peas: Dominant vs. recessive
o Flower Color - Purple, White
o Seed Color - Yellow, Green
o Seed Shape - Round, Wrinkled
o Pod Color - Green, Yellow
o Pod Shape - Smooth, Constricted
o Flower Position - Axial (angle), Terminal (top)
o Plant Height - Tall, Short
22. 3 steps of Mendel’s Experiments:
o Self pollinated to produce a true-breeding P generation.
o Cross-pollinate 2 P generation plants w/ contrasting traits, producing an F1 generation
o Allow F1 generation to self-pollinate, F2 generation (3:1)
14
23. Dominant & Recessive Characters:
DOMINANT
RECESSIVE
Cleft Chin
No Cleft
Dimples
No Dimples
Hair Above Knuckles
Hairless Fingers
Freckles
No Freckles
24. The Laws of Heredity:
o Law of Segregation - States that 2 alleles separate when gametes are formed during
meiosis.
o Law of Independent Assortment - States that alleles of different genes separate
independently of one another during gamete formation.
25. Punnett Squares:
Punnett square: a diagram that predicts the outcome of a genetic cross by considering all possible
combinations of gametes in the cross.
Monohybrid Crosses - One pair of contrasting traits.
Dihybrid Crosses - Two pairs of contrasting traits.
15
Homozygous: when two alleles of a gene in an individual are the same. XX or PP
Heterozygous: when two alleles of a gene in an individual are different. Xx or Pp
Phenotype: the physical appearance of a character.
Genotype: the set of alleles that an individual has for its character (basically, character traits)
The last difference is that a monohybrid cross contains 4 squares, while a dihybrid cross
has 16. (To see these, look on page 170 and 171 of your textbook!)
26. Test Cross - An individual whose phenotype is dominant and the genotype is unknown and is
crossed w/ a homozygous recessive individual.
Pedigree - Family history that shows how a trait is inherited.
27. Polygenic Inheritance, Incomplete Dominance, Multiple Alleles, Codominance,
Environmental Influence on Characters:
o Polygenic inheritance - When several genes influence a trait
 Eye color, Height, Weight, Hair color
o Incomplete dominance - When an individual displays a trait that is intermediate
 Cross red & white snapdragon = pink; Cross curly & straight hair = wavy
o Multiple alleles - Genes w/ 3+ alleles
 ABO blood groups are determined by 3 alleles
o Codominance - When both alleles dominate at the same time
 AB blood type
o Characters influenced by the environment - Phenotype is based on conditioned
environments
 Arctic Fox: fur is RED in SUMMER, fur is WHITE in WINTER.
 Hydrangea: flower is BLUE when soil is ACIDIC, flower is PINK when
soil is BASIC.
 In humans, hair and skin color, height, behavior.
28. Griffith’s Experiment - Griffith injected a mouse w/ S bacteria and the mouse got sick and
died. He injected a mouse w/ R bacteria and it did not die. He injected a mouse w/ heat-killed S
bacteria and the mouse lived. He injected a mouse w/ heat-killed S bacteria and mixed it w/ R
bacteria and the mouse died. Harmless R bacteria had changed into virulent S bacteria. What
Griffith discovered was transformation.
29. Hershey Chase Experiment - Hershey and Chase grew T2 w/ E coli. Bacteria in a nutrient
medium containing radioactive sulfur (35S). They grew a 2nd batch in a medium containing
radioactive phosphorus (32P). These phages infected 2 separate E. coli bacteria. After a few
minutes, the phages were torn off the surfaces of the E. coli bacteria. Hershey and Chase found
that most of the 35S stayed on the phage and that most of the 32P was injected into the E. coli
bacteria. Also, the new generation phages produced by the bacteria contained radioactive DNA.
16
30. Griffith, Avery, Hershey and Chase, Chargaff, Wilkins & Franklin, Watson & Crick:
o Griffith - Discovered transformation.
o Avery - Demonstrated that DNA is the material responsible for transformation.
o Hershey & Chase - Concluded that DNA of viruses is injected into bacterial cells;
most of viral proteins remain outside.
o Chargaff - Observed that the amount of Adenine equaled the amount of Thymine and
the amount of Guanine equaled the amount of Cytosine. Amount of Adenine and
Thymine and of Guanine and Cytosine varied b/t diff. organisms.
o Wilkins & Franklin - Developed high quality X-ray diffraction photographs of strands
of DNA, which suggested that the DNA molecule resembled a tightly coiled helix and
was composed of 2 - 3 chains of nucleotides.
o Watson & Crick - Discovered that a DNA molecule structure is a double helix.
 Structure of DNA
 Double helix- 2 strands twisted around each other and made up of nucleotides which
are in turn made up of a phosphate group, 5 carbon sugar, and a nitrogen base.
 Base pairing rules
 Purines pair with pyrimidines.
 Have hydrogen bonds and complementary base pairs
 Adenine Thymine or Thymine Adenine
 Guanine Cytosine or Cytosine Guanine
 DNA replication
 Process of making a copy of the DNA
 Happens during the S phase of the cell cycle
 Central dogma
 DNARNAProtein
 DNA goes to RNA through transcription; RNA goes to proteins through translation.
 Three types of RNA
 Messenger RNA- carries copies of instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins.
 Transfer RNA- transfers each amino acid to the ribosome as it is specified by coded
messages in mRNA.
 Ribosomal RNA- is part of ribosomes where proteins are actually assembled.
17
 Transcription
 The process in which the instructions for making a protein are transferred from a gene
to RNA.
 Translation
 The process in which the cell uses different types of RNA to read the instructions on the
RNA molecule and puts together the amino acids that make a protein.
 Genetic code, codons
 RNA instructions are written as series of three nucleotide sequences of three nucleotide
sequences on the mRNA called codon. Each codon along the mRNA strand corresponds
to an amino acid or signifies a start of stop signal for translation.
 Interpreting the genetic code
 Mutations
 No mutation
 Gene Rearrangements
♥ Transposition
♥ Chromosomal rearrangement
 Gene alterations
♥ Point mutation
♥ Insertion
♥ Deletion
♥ Diagrams
 DNA replication
18
32. Transcription:
o RNA polymerase binds to the gene’s promoter.
o The 2 DNA strands unwind and separate.
o Complementary RNA nucleotides are added.
33. Translation:
o Ribosomal subunits, the mRNA, and the tRNA carrying MET (Methionine) bind
together.
o The tRNA carrying the amino acid specified by the codon in the A site arrives.
o A peptide bond forms b/t adjacent amino acids.
o The tRNA in the P site detaches and leaves its amino acid behind.
o The tRNA in the A site moves to the P site. The tRNA carrying the amino acid
specified by the codon in the A site arrives.
o A peptide bond forms. The tRNA in P site detaches, leaving its amino acids behind.
o The process is repeated until a stop codon is reached. The ribosome complex falls
apart. The new protein is released.
34. Genetic code - 1 codon = 3 bases (codes for 1 amino acid). Total 64 codons.
Codons - Instructions written as a series of 3 nucleotide sequences on the mRNA.
Stop codons - UAA, UAG, UGA.
Start codon - AUG.(Methionine)
Genetic Engineering: the process of manipulating genes for practical purposes
19
Recombinant DNA: DNA made from two or more organisms
Restriction Enzymes: bacterial enzymes that recognize and bind to specific short sequences of
DNA, and then cut the DNA between specific nucleotides within the sequences and leave sticky
ends
Vector: an agent that is used to carry the gene of interest into another cell Plasmids: circular DNA
molecules that can replicate independently of the main chromosomes of bacteria.
Gene Cloning: a process where many copies of the gene of interest are made
Electrophoresis: a technique that uses an electric field within a gel to separate molecules by their
size Probes: radioactive- or fluorescent- labeled RNA of single-stranded DNA pieces that are
complementary to the gene of interest
Steps in Genetic Engineering:
o DNA is cut by restriction enzymes which leave sticky ends
o Recombinant DNA is produced by DNA ligase enzyme
o Gene is cloned when bacteria are allowed to reproduce.
o Cells undergo selection & then are screened.
35. Southern Blot Method:
o DNA from each bacterial clone colony is cut w/ restriction enzymes.
o DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis.
o DNA is transferred to filter paper (blotted). A probe is added.
o Only DNA fragments that contain the gene of interest bind to probes.
36. Facts about the Human Genome Project:
o Research project linking over 20 labs in 6 countries.
o Scientists published a working draft of the human genome sequence in February
2001.
o Scientists identified all 3.2 billion base pairs of DNA.
o Human cells contain only 35,000 genes.
o 1.5% of the human genome is DNA that codes for proteins.
37. 3 Ways to Improve Crops:
o Make crops more tolerant to drought condition and adaptable to diff. soils.
o Make crops resistant to weed killer (glyphosate).
o Make crops resistant to insects by inserting a certain gene isolated from soil bacteria.
38. 3 Applications of Genetic Engineering to Animal Farming:
o Add growth hormones to diet of cows to increase milk production.
o Inbreeding - keeping the desired traits.
o Selective Breeding - breeding organisms w/ the same traits.
20
Cloning
 Advantages: saves endangered species
 Disadvantages: oversized animals, immune system failure,
developmental problems
 Add growth hormones to diet of cows to increase milk production
 Add growth hormone to pigs to increase their weight
 Selective breeding
 Passes desired traits to next generation
 Ex: horses, cats, farm animals and potatoes
 Hybridization
 Crosses dissimilar individuals to bring out the best of both
 Ex: daises, food, plants
 Inbreeding
 To maintain desired characteristics, scientists continuously breed
individuals with same characteristics.
 Ex: dogs- beagles, poodles

39. EARTH’s history
 Earth formed 4.5 billion years ago as a fiery ball of molten rock
 Earth eventually cooled down and formed rocky crust
Water Vapor condensed to form the vast oceans
40. Radiometric Dating - Estimation of age of an object by measuring its content of certain
radioactive isotopes.
Half-life - Time it takes for ½ of an amount of radioisotope to decay.
41. Primordial Soup Model - AI Oparin & JBS Haldane suggested Earth’s ocean contained large
amount of organic molecules. These organic molecules formed spontaneously in chemical
reaction formed from solar radiation, volcanic eruptions, and lightning. The atmosphere was
rich in nitrogen, water vapor, hydrogen, methane, and ammonia. Electrons in these gases
were frequently pushed to higher energy levels by light particles from the Sun or electrical
energy from lightning & would react w/ hydrogen rich molecules and form a variety of
organic comps.
42. Miller Urey Experiment - Water is heated and water vapor is mixed w/ hydrogen, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, ammonia, and methane. The mixture of gases is sparked
w/ electricity to simulate lightning. The gases were cooled using a glass tube filled w/
circulating cold water. The dark mixture that formed contained amino acids and other
complex molecules.
43. Lerman’s Bubble Model:
o Gases were trapped in underwater bubbles.
o Gases underwent chemical reactions.
o Gases were ejected into the atmosphere.
o Gases underwent further reactions.
21
o Simple & complex compounds fell into the oceans.
44. Evolution of Cellular Life:
o Prokaryotes - Single celled organisms that lack internal membrane-bound organelles
(evolved 2.5 billion years ago). Cyanobacteria were the first prokaryotes to evolve.
They were marine, photosynthetic & released oxygen into the oceans which, after
millions of years, escaped to the Earth’s atmosphere.
 Eubacteria - Prokaryotes that contain a chemical called peptidoglycan in
their cell walls. These bacteria usually cause disease and decay. (E. coli,
Sulfolobus).
 Archaebacteria - Prokaryotes that lack peptidoglycan and have unique lipids
in their cell membranes. (Methanogens).
o Eukaryotes - Larger organisms w/ a complex system of internal membranes and DNA
enclosed w/in the nucleus.
45. Theory of Endosymbiosis - Lynn Margulis proposed that mitochondria are the descendents of
symbiotic, aerobic eubacteria and chloroplasts are the descendants of symbiotic,
photosynthetic eubacteria. These were the similarities between mitochondria and chloroplasts
and bacteria:
o Size and structure – Mitochondria and most eubacteria and the same size as well as
chloroplasts and cyanobacteria. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are surrounded by 2
membranes, and both chloroplasts and cyanobacteria have thylakoids.
o Genetic material - Mitochondria and chloroplasts have circular DNA and genes that
are different than those in the nucleus.
o Ribosomes – Mitochondrial and chloroplasts are similar in size and structure to
bacterial ribosomes.
o Reproduction - Chloroplasts and mitochondria reproduce by binary fission.
Chapter 13, 14, 15, 16, & 17 Test Review
♥ Steps in genetic engineering: cutting DNA, making recombinant DNA, Cloning, Screening
 Cutting DNA- Human chromosome carrying insulin gene and bacterium with plasmid DNA is
cut with restriction enzyme
 Making Recombinant DNA- human insulin gene is inserted into bacteria and recombinant DNA
is produced
 Cloning- the gene is cloned when bacteria are allowed to reproduce
 Screening- cells undergo selection and then are screened; bacteria cells with the insulin are
later isolated
22
♥ Confirmation of a cloned gene: Southern blot method
 DNA from each bacterial clone is cut with restriction enzymes
 DNA fragments are separated by gel electrophoresis
 DNA is transferred to filter paper (blotted). A probe is added.
 Only DNA fragments that contain the gene of interest bind to probes.
♥ Facts about the human genome project
 Completed in February 2001
 Draft of entire human genome sequence
 20 labs, 6 countries participated
 3.2 billion base pairs in human body
 Only 1.5% of DNA in body codes for/makes proteins
 Each human cell contains about 6 feet of DNA, out of which less than 1 inch is devoted to
exons. The rest of the DNA is made up of introns.
 Total of 30,000 genes in human body.
♥ 5 genetically engineered medicines and their basic uses
 human growth hormone- used to help people with growth deficiencies
 insulin- used to help people with diabetes
 growth factors- burns, ulcers
 interferons- viral infections and cancer
 taxol- ovarian cancer
♥ 5 ways to improve crops by manipulating genes
 make plants resistant to drought conditions and adapt to different soils, climates, and
environmental conditions
 make plants resistant to weeds
 make plants resistant to insects
23
♥
♥
♥
♥
♥
♥
♥
 make nutritious crops
 genetically engineered plants
5 applications of genetic engineering to animal farming
 cloning
 add growth hormones to diet of cows to increase milk production
 add GH to pigs to increase their weight
 inbreeding
 hybridization
Facts about Charles Darwin’s early life( nature, youth, education, voyage on beagle, research)
 Came from a rich family
 Spoiled
 Dad sent him to school
 Left school when he was about 19-20 year old
 Dad told him to be a clergyman
 He became a clergyman
 Was interested in nature
 Set out on a 5 year voyage on the Beagle
 Collected about 30,00 species
Work and views of various scientists regarding evolution
 The idea that life evolves may have been first proposed by a Roman philosopher, Lucretius
who lived about 2000 years ago
 In 1809, Jean Baptist Lamarck proposed a hypothesis for how organisms change over
generations. He believed that over the lifetime of an individual, physical features increase in
size because of use or reduce of size because of disuse. He also said that these features are
passed onto offspring (the last statement has been proven false).
 Charles Lyell published the book Principles of Theology in which he proposed that the surface
of Earth is changing slowly over many years.
 In 1859, Charles Darwin published convincing evidence that species evolve, and he proposed a
reasonable mechanism explaining how evolution occurs.
 Thomas Malthus- wrote that humans can grow faster than the food supply.
 Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge- theory where periods of rapid change in species are
separated by periods of little or no change.
Darwin’s finches
 Descent with modification- the ancestors of species on the island had migrated from South
America and had modified them selves.
Darwin’s theory
 Inherited variation existed within the genes of every population or species.
 In a particular environment, some individuals of a population or species are better suited to
survive (as a result of variation) and have more offspring (as a result of selection).
 Over time, the traits that make certain individuals of a certain population able to survive and
reproduce tend to spread in that population.
 There is overwhelming evidence from fossils and other sources that living species evolved
from organisms that are extinct.
Why can’t some individuals within a given species breed?
 Reproductive isolation- is the condition in which two populations of the same species do not
breed with one another because of geographic separation, a difference in mating periods, or
other barriers to reproduction.
Homologous and vestigial structures
24
 Homologous structures- are structures that share common ancestry
o E.g. - forelimbs of all vertebrates share common bones.
 Vestigial structures- are smaller structures, have less function or perform from that of
homologous structures in ancestral life forms.
o E.g. – the tiny bones posterior to the sacrum called coccyx, appendix in humans, and
pelvic bones in whales.
♥ Role of biological molecules (e.g. hemoglobin) in understanding evolution
Species
Amino acid differences from
human hemoglobin protein
Gorilla
1
Rhesus monkey
8
Mouse
27
Chicken
45
Frog
67
Lamprey
125
♥ Explain natural selection with the help of an example
 Before the Industrial Revolution, there were white birch trees. There were also white moths.
These moths blended in with the trees while black moths were easily noticeable, causing them
to be easily eaten. Overtime, because of the Industrial Revolution, the white trees started to
become darker from the coal. The white moths were then easily visible and the black moths
blended in.
♥ 3 key features of a population
 Population size- the number of individuals in a population.
 Population density- the number of individuals that live in a given area.
 Dispersion- the way individuals in a population
 Random- individuals are randomly spaced
25
 E.g.- pine trees

Even- individuals are spaced evenly
 E.g.- birds
 Clumped- individuals are spaced in clusters
 E.g.- buffaloes
♥ Population growth models( exponential vs. logistic) and examples
 Exponential- J shaped growth curve causing population size to increase steadily
 Logistic- S shaped growth curve where exponential growth is limited by dependent factors.
♥ r-strategists vs. k-strategists and their examples
 R-Strategists (rapid growing populations)
 Grow Exponentially
 Result in large populations
 Have short life span
 Have many offspring
 Offspring are small and mature rapidly with no to little parental care.
 Examples: Bacteria, Lice, ticks, Flies, Cockroaches and Mosquitoes.
 K-Strategists (slow growing populations)
 Grow slowly
 Have small populations
 Few offspring
 Slow maturing process
 Long life span
 Reproduce late in life
 Examples: Tigers, Gorillas, Whales
♥ Hardy Weinberg theory ( and the 5 evolutionary forces)
 Hardy-Weinberg Theory- predicts genotype frequencies in a given population. Only stays true if
population is large enough that its members do not mate with relatives and as long as
evolutionary forces are not acting.
 Mutation- source of variation and makes evolution possible
 Gene Flow- migration caused by movement of individuals to and from a population
26

Non-Random Mating- increases the number of homozygotes in the population
(inbreeding)
 Genetic Drift- the frequency of an allele is changed by a sudden event (landslides or
fire)
 Natural Selection- the frequency of an allele will increase or decrease depending on
the allele’s effects on survival and reproduction (survival of the fittest)
♥ Hardy Weinberg equation
 P2+2PQ+q2= 1
 P= dominant trait
 Q= recessive trait
♥ Understanding normal distribution, examples
♥ Types of selection- directional, stabilizing, disruptive, and their examples
 Directional- when individuals at one end of the curve have a higher fitness level than those in
the middle or at the other end.
 Examples: Birds beaks and seeds
 Stabilizing- when individuals near the center of the curve have higher fitness than those at
either end.
 Examples: Babies birth weight
 Disruptive- when individuals at the upper and lower ends of the curve have higher fitness than
those near the middle.
 Examples: Birds beaks and seeds
♥ Earth’s formation and events that followed were
 The formation of earth occurred about 4.6 billion years ago.
 The first organic molecules discovered by Miller and Urey.
 The formation of microspheres occurred
 Evolution of DNA and RNA occurred
 Oxygen was found
 Origin of eukaryotic cells occurred
♥ Radiometric dating, half life
 Radiometric Dating- estimation of the age of an object by measuring the content of its
radioactive isotopes.
 Half-life- the time it will take for a radioactive isotopes quantity to decay.
♥ Evolution of cellular life -prokaryotes and eukaryotes and their examples
Prokaryotes
 Evolved 2.5 billion years ago
 Single Celled
 Lack internal membrane
 There are two groups of Prokaryotes
 Eubacteria- contain chemical peptidoglycan and cause disease and decay
 Examples: E. Coli, Sulfolobus
 Archaebacteria- lack peptidoglycan in their cell wall and have unique lipids in
their cell membranes.
 Examples: Methanogens
Eukaryotes
 Evolved 1.5 billion years ago
 Large organisms
27

Have an internal membrane and DNA in the nucleus
 Examples: fungi, animals, plants
♥ Theory of endosymbiosis
 Theory of Endosymbiosis- proposes that mitochondria are descendants of symbiotic, aerobic
Eubacteria and that chloroplast are descendants of symbiotic, photosynthetic Eubacteria.
♥ 6 kingdoms of life
 Eubacteria
 Archaebacteria
 Protista
 Fungi
 Plantae
 Animalia
♥ 4 eras and 13 kingdoms ( refer to table Ms. Rao gave in class)
 Precambrian Time
 Vendian- Eukaryotes and Multicellular forms
 Paleozoic
 Cambrian- Jellyfish, Worms, Sponges
 Ordovician- Octopi, Squid, Jawless fish
 Silurian- Octopi, Squid, Jawless fish
 Devonian- Fern, Insects, Shark
 Carboniferous- Reptiles, Winged Insects, Ferns
 Permian- Reptiles, Winged Insects, Ferns, Mass Extinction
 Mesozoic
 Triassic- Dinosaurs, Mammals (small about size of rats)
 Jurassic- Dinosaurs, First Bird
 Cretaceous- T-Rex, Birds, Flying Reptiles, Conifers
 Cenozoic
 Tertiary- Whales, Dolphins, Flowering Plants, Grasses
 Quaternary- Ice Ages, Climate warmed, Algae, Coral, Mollusks, Fish, Mammals, Dogs,
Bats, Cats
♥ Mass extinctions
 1st- 440 million years ago
 2nd- 360 million years ago
 3rd- 245 million years ago
 4th- 210 million years ago
 5th- 65 million years ago
♥ Population growth models( exponential vs. logistic)
28
♥ Miller Urey experiment
♥ Normal distribution curve
29
Biology Study Guide
1.
What are the eight categories in the classification of organisms?

Species

Genus

Family

Order

Class

Phylum

Kingdom

Domain
2. What are the three domains and their characteristics?

Eubacteria

cell wall (contains peptidoglycan)

Ex: Enterobacteria

Archaebacteria

cell wall (contains lipids)

Ex: Methanogens

Eukarya

mixed

Ex: Amoebas
3. What are the six kingdoms and their characteristics?



Eubacteria (look above)
Archaebacteria (look above)
Protista

mixed

Ex: Kelps

Fungi

cell wall (contains chitin)

Ex: Yeast, Mushrooms

Plantae

cell wall (contains cellulose)

Ex: Fern, Pine Trees

Animalia

no cell wall

Ex: Birds, Earthworms

6. What are the different shapes of viruses?

Long Rods

Spherical

Helical

Polyhedral
7. What is viral reproduction and what are the two kinds?

Viral Reproduction- where a virus depends on a living cell for reproduction

Viruses lack enzymes

Viruses don’t have the ability to make enzymes

Lytic Cycle

Only occurs in bacterial viruses

Will eventually kill host

Lysogenic Cycle

Only occurs in animal cells

Multiplies
8. What are Prions?
30

Prions- a pathogens that is composed of proteins but contain no nucleic acids

Causes

Scrapie in sheep

Mad Cow Disease

Creutzfeldt Jakob Disease
9. What are Viriods?

Viriods- a single strand of RNA without a capsid

Affects

Cucumbers

Potatoes

Avocados

Oranges
10. What are the different shapes of bacteria and what is an example of each?

Bacillus- rod shaped

Psuedomorias

Coccus- round shaped

Staphylococcus

Spirillum- spiral shaped

Spirillum
11. What is the difference between strepto and staphylo?

Strepto-Forms in single strands

Staphylo- Form in clusters
12. What are Endospores?


Thick walls around bacterial chromosomes

Prevents

Depletion of Nutrients

Drought

High Temperatures
Might germinate years after formed
13. What are Pili?


Enables bacteria to stick to surfaces for nutrition.
Use conjugation

Where two organisms exchange genetic material
14. What are the four types of Photosynthetic Bacteria?




Purple Non-Sulfur

Use acid and carbohydrates as source of electrons for photosynthesis
Green Sulfur

Use hydrogen sulfide as source of electrons for photosynthesis
Purple Sulfur

Use hydrogen sulfide as source of electrons for photosynthesis
Cyanobacteria

Fix Bacteria
15. What are three Bacterial Diseases and name a way they are transmitted?

Anthrax

Inhalation of spores

Cholera

Drinking contaminated water

Tuberculosis

Inhalation
16. What are three Viral Diseases and name a way they are transmitted?
31

AIDS

Sexual Contact

Polio

Contaminated food or water

Rabies

Bite from an infected animal
17. What are three Bacterial Toxins and name a way they are transmitted?

Staphylococcus aureus

Food Poisoning

Clostridium botulinum

Food Poisoning due to use of improperly canned food

E coli

Food Poisoning due to raw and improperly cooked food
18. What are some important facts about Protists?

Most diverse of all organisms

First Eukaryotes

Evolved through the process of Endosymbiosis

Gave rise to Fungi, Plants and Animals

Use Flagella or Cilia

Reproduce asexually but reproduce sexually in stressful conditions
19. What are the main groups of Protists and what is some information about each?





Amoebas

Rhizopoda

Use pseudopodia (false foot) for movement
Algae

Distinguished by their pigment

Green

Chlorophyta

Red

Rhodophyta

Brown

Phaeophyta

EX: Seaweed and Kelp
Diatoms

Bacillariophyta

Have cells made of silica

Used to make Diatomaceous earth

Abrasive

Sparkling quality to paint

Used for pest control
Flagellates

Dinoflagellates

Dinoflagellata

Associated with poisonous “red tides”

Euglenoids

Euglenophyta

EX: Euglena

Kinetoplastids

Kinetoplastida

EX: Trypanosomes

Ciliates

Cilophora

EX: Paramecium
Protistan Molds

Cellular Slime Molds
32

Plasmodial Slime Molds

Other molds- Oomycetes

Sporozoans

Apicomplexa

Diseases

Malaria

Toxoplasmosis

Cattle Tick Fever
20. What are three diseases caused by protists and how they are transmitted?

African Sleeping Sickness

Bite from infected tsetse fly

Giardiasis

Contaminated food or water

Malaria

Bite from infected mosquito
21. What is the Plasmodium Life Cycle?

Step 1: An infected mosquito bites a human are injects Plasmodium sporozoites. (Sexual
Reproduction)

Step 2: The sporozoites infect the liver and develop into merozoites. (Asexual Reproduction)

Step 3: Over a 48-72 hour process the merozoites infect the red blood cells and multiply to infect new
red blood cells. (Asexual Reproduction)

Step 4: Some of the merozoites develop in gametes and the next mosquito that bites you will take up
the gametes. (Sexual Reproduction)

Step 5: The gametes go inside the mosquito and produce sporozoites. (Sexual Reproduction)
22. What is the treatment for malaria?
 Cinchona tree

Produces chloroquine and primaquine
23. What are some of the benefits of protists?

Live in the digesting tract or humans and in the tracts of animals humans eat.

Benefit from the gas protists produce

Recycle Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Carbon
24. What are three uses of fungi?

Yeast is used in baking, brewing and wine making

Makes penicillin

Some ferment soy sauce and produce citric acid
25. What are the characteristics of the three phyla’s of fungi and what is an example of each?
(MANDATORY QUESTION)

Zycomycota

Sexual Spore- Zygosporangia

EX: Black Bread Molds

Ascomycota

Sexual Spore- Asci

EX: Yeast

Basidiomycota

Sexual Spore- Basiclia

EX: Mushrooms
26. What are deuteromycetes?

Deuteromycetes = Imperfect Fungi

Don’t reproduce sexually
27. What are the Scientific Names of Bread Mold, Yeast and Mushrooms? (MANDATORY
QUESTION)
33

Bread Mold

Rhizopus stolonifer

Yeast

Saccharomyces cerevisial

Mushrooms

Amamita muscaria
28. What are the two fungal partnerships?

Mycorrizhae

Relationship between Fungi and Vascular Plants

Hyphae transfers phosphorous to plant

Plant supplies carbohydrates to the fungus

Lichens

Relationship between Fungi and Algae, Cyanobacteria or both

Algae supplies carbohydrates to fungus

Fungi protects the algae
29. What are three diseases caused by fungi?

Athlete’s foot

Ringworm

Thrush
30. What are the three Advantageous Features of Plants?

Conducting Tissue

Vascular or Non-Vascular

Vascular system distributes minerals

Seeds

Protection

Nourishment

Plant Dispersal

Delayed growth

Flowers

Produce pollen and seeds

Attracts insects, birds, etc. for pollination
31. What are some examples of Non-Vascular Plants?

Moss

Liverworts

Hornworts
32. What are some examples of Seedless Vascular Plants?

Fern

Horsetails

Whisk Ferns
33. What are the four types of Gymnosperms?

Conifers

Cycads

Ginkgo

Gnetophytes
34. What are the differences between Monocots and Dicots?

Monocots

One Seed Leaf

Long, Narrow leaves with parallel veins

Parts in multiples of three

EX: Iris, Tulip, Wheat

34

Dicots

Two Seed Leaves

Branched veins

Parts in multiples of two, four or five

EX: daisies, roses, tomatoes
35. What are the structures involved in sexual reproduction in plants and what does each do?



Archegonim- produces the egg
Antheredium- produces sperm
Sporangium- produces spores
36. What are the four main parts to every flower?
37. What are the 4 different types of flowers?

Complete- has all 4 parts

Incomplete- doesn’t have all 4 parts

Perfect- has both stamens and pistils

Imperfect- doesn’t have either stamens or pistils
38. What are three types of stems and what is an example of each?

Bulb

EX: Onion, Tulip
35

Tuber

EX: Potato, Caladium

Rhizome

EX: Iris, Fern
39. What are the three kinds of Plant Propagation and what is an example of each?

Budding and Grafting

EX: Grapevines, Fruit and Nut Trees

Taking Cuttings

EX: Figs, Shrubs

Tissue Culture

EX: Potatoes, Orchids, Houseplants
40. What are the 3 tissue layers of Vascular Plants?

Dermal

Outer Layer

Non-Woody Part is called Epidermis

Layer of Dead Cells called Cork

Ground

Inside of Non-Woody Plants (roots, leaves, stems)

Made of Living Cells

Leaves- perform photosynthesis

Stems and Roots- storage (water, nutrients)

Vascular

Compounds in Vascular Tissue

Xylem

thick cells that conduct water and nutrients

Tracheids- narrow, water get through pits

Vessels- wide and let water flow quickly through cells

Phloem

Conducts sugars in plant body

Companion Cells- carry out cellular respiration
41. What are the three types of roots and what is an example?

Taproot

EX: Radish, Carrots

Fibrous Root

EX: Grasses

Adventitious

EX: Orchids, Corn
42. What are the layers of a leaf?

Upper Epidermis

Palisade Layer

Spongy Layer

Lower Epidermis
43. How does water go through plants?

Step 1: Water Vapor exits leaves through transpiration

Step 2: Loss of Water causes a pull system to begin which draws water through xylem

Step 3: Water drawn into roots moves up stem
44. What are the different types of plants and the characteristics of each?


Perennial

Lives for several years

Reproduces many times or only once

EX: Daffodils, Chrysanthemums, Iris
Deciduous
36

Drop leaves every year

EX: Elms, Maples, Grapevines

Evergreen

Drops a few leaves throughout a year

EX: Junipers, Firs, Pines

Annuals

Completes its life cycle and dies within one growing season

EX: Sunflower, Bean, Corn

Biennials

Take tow growing season to complete life cycle

EX: Onions, Parsley and Carrots
45. What are the three types of tropism?

Phototropism- when plants grow towards light

Gravitropism- when plants grow towards gravity

Thigmotropism- when plants grow towards touch
46. How do Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium help plants?

Nitrogen- promotes growth of green parts, ATP, Nucleic Acids and Proteins

Phosphorous- ATP, ADP, Phospholipids and Coenzmes

Potassium- Active Transport, Osmotic Balance
47. What are the three types of body symmetry and what is an example of each?

Asymmetry

Irregular

EX: Sponges

Radial

Body arranged in a central axis

EX: Starfish and Sea Anemone

Bilateral

Splitting in half causes mirror images

EX: Dog, Human, Butterfly
48. What are the different Phylas/ Classes and what are some examples of each?





Porifera

Multicellular

Asymmetrical

Mostly Marine

EX: Sponges
Cnidaria

Radial Symmetry

Acoelomate

Stinging Tentacles

EX: Jellyfish
Platyholminthes

Acoelomate

Flat body

Parasitic

EX: Flatworms
Nematoda

Bilateral Symmetry

Slender Body

Aquatic and terrestrial

EX: Round Worms
Annelida

Bilateral Symmetry

Closed Circulatory System

Aquatic and terrestrial
37









EX: Segmented Worms
Mollusca

Coelomate

Bilateral Symmetry

Three germ layers

EX: Mollusks
Arthropoda

Three germ layers

Coelomate

Bilateral Symmetry

EX: Arthropods
Echinodermata

Three germ layers

Coelomate

Marine

EX: Starfish
Chordata

Three germ layers

Bilateral Symmetry

Coelomate

EX: N/A
Urochordata

Nerve Cord

Marine

Filter-feeding

EX: Tunicates
Cephalochordata

Marine

Filter-feeding

Small and fish-like

EX: Lancelets
Mixini

Marine

Mostly Scavengers

Open Circulatory System

EX: Hagfish
Cephalaspidomorphi

Open Circulatory System

Marine and freshwater

Lack true jaws

EX: Lampreys
Biology Exam 3 Review
Short answer questions will be based on some of the topics listed below:
1. Classification of Organisms (8 categories in correct order)
a. Species
b. Genus
c. Family
d. Order
e. Class
38
f. Phylum
g. Kingdom
h. Domain
2. Basic Characteristics of 3 domains/ 6 Kingdoms
Domain
Kingdom
Characteristics
Cell structure
Example
Bacteria
Eubacteria
Cell wall,
peptidoglycan
Enterobacteria,
Spirochetes
Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria
Cell wall, no
peptidoglycan, made
of lipids
Methanogens
Eukarya
Protista
Mixed
Amoebas, euglenas,
kelps
Eukarya
Fungi
Cell wall made of
chitin
Yeasts, mushrooms
Eukarya
Plantae
Cell wall made of
cellulose
Ferns, pine trees
Eukarya
Animalia
No cell wall, have cell
membrane
Birds, earthworms
3. 3 examples of RNA viruses
a. HIV
b. Influenza
c. Rabies
4. 3 examples of DNA viruses
a. Warts
b. Chicken pox
c. Mononucleosis
5. Different shapes of viruses
a. Long rods
b. Spherical
c. Helical
d. Polyhedral
6. Viral Reproduction- lytic cycle and lysogenic cycle
a. 2 reasons why a virus depends on living cells(host sells) for reproduction
i. Viruses lack the enzymes necessary for metabolism
ii. Viruses have no structure to make proteins
b. Lytic cycle- in bacterial viruses
i. Virus attaches to a cell and injects DNA
ii. Viral DNA enters the lytic cycle
39
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
iii. New viruses are made
iv. The cell breaks open and releases viruses
c. Lysogenic cycle- in animal cells
i. Virus attaches to a cell and injects DNA
ii. Viral DNA enters the lysogenic cycle
iii. Viral DNA integrates with host DNA
iv. The host cell divides normally
v. The provirus may enter the lytic cycle
Prions and Viroids
a. Prions
i. New class of pathogens composed of proteins, but have no nucleic acids
ii. Cause diseases like:
o Scrapie in sheep
o Mad cow disease
o Creutzfedlt Jakob disease
b. Viroids
i. Single strand RNA that has no capsid
ii. Usually affect plants like:
o Cucumbers
o Potatoes
o Avocadoes
o Oranges
Bacterial shapes and one example of each
a. Bacillus- rod shaped cell
i. Example- pseudomonas
b. Coccus- round shaped cell
i. Example- staphylococcus
c. Spirillum- a spiral cell
i. Example- spirillum serpens
Cladogram and Phylogenic tree
a. Cladogram
i. A branching system diagram which shows evolutionary relationships
b. Phylogenic Tree
i. A branching system that shows evolutionary systematics
Strepto and Staphylo
a. Strepto
i. Species that form filaments
b. Staphylo
i. Species that form clusters
Gram Staining
a. Indicates susceptibility to different antibiotics
i. Gram negative bacteria
ii. Gram positive bacteria
Endospores and Pili
a. Endospores
i. Thick walled and form around bacterial chromosomes to protects them from harsh
conditions
ii. May germinated years after formation and release active bacteria
40
b. Pili
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
i. Enable bacteria to adhere/stick to surfaces of sources of nutrition
ii. Some kinds are able to exchange genetic material through a process called
conjugation
iii. Conjugation is a process in which two organisms exchange genetic material
Different types of photosynthetic bacteria
a. Purple non sulfur
i. Use acids and carbohydrates as source of electrons for photosynthesis
b. Green sulfur
i. Use hydrogen sulfide as source of electrons for photosynthesis
c. Purple sulfur
i. Use hydrogen sulfide as a source of electrons for photosynthesis
d. Cyanobacteria
i. Fix nitrogen
3 bacterial diseases and one way in which they are transmitted
a. Dental cavities
i. Dense collections of bacteria in mouth
b. Lyme disease
i. Bite of an infected tick
c. Tuberculosis
i. Inhalation
3 bacterial toxins and one way in which they are transmitted
a. Staphylococcus aureus( S. aureus)
i. Food poisoning
b. Clostridium botulinum( C. botulinum)
i. Food poisoning due to improperly cooked food
c. E. coli
i. Poisoning associated with raw or improperly cooked food
3 viral diseases and one way in which they are transmitted
a. AIDS
i. Sexual contact
ii. Contaminated blood
iii. Contaminated needles
b. Common cold
i. Inhalation
ii. Direct contact
c. Ebola
i. Body fluids
Facts about protists
a. Protists are most diverse and eventually give rise to fungi, plants, and animals.
b. First eukaryotes
c. Mostly unicellular, but sometimes they are complex and multicellular
d. Some are photosynthetic, some ingest food, and some absorb food
e. Have flagella or cilia for locomotion or collection of food
f. Some reproduce asexually through mitosis and tend to reproduce sexually by meiosis under
stressful conditions
Basic information about following protists- amoeba, algae, diatoms, flagellates, protistan molds, and
sporozoans
41
a. Amoeba
i. Phylum- rhizopoda
ii. Use pseudopodia( false foot) for movement
b. Algae
i. Are distinguished by type of photosynthetic pigment that they have and the cell or
body shape
o Green algae
 Phylum- Chlorophyta
o Red algae
 Phylum- Rhodophyta
o Brown Algae- sea weed or kelps
 Phylum- Phaeophyta
c. Diatoms
i. Have unique double shells made of silica
ii. Have unique markings
iii. Often diatomaceous earth is used as abrasive
o Adds sparkling quality to paint on road
o Sold as natural control for pests
d. Flagellates
i. Are protists that move with the help of flagella
o Dinoflagellates
 Phylum- Dinoflagellata
 Are known to b associated with the poisonous “red tides” in coastal waters
o Euglenoids
 Phylum- Euglenophyta
 Example- Euglena
o Kinetoplastids
 Phylum- Kinetoplastida
 Example-Trypanosomes
19. 3 diseases caused by protists and one way in which that are transmitted
a. African sleeping sickness
i. Bite from infected tsetse fly
b. Amebic dysentery
i. Contaminated food or water
c. Malaria
i. Bite from infected mosquito
20. Life cycle of Plasmodium, Malaria and its treatment
a. Life cycle
i. As an infected mosquito bites a human, it injects Plasmodium sporozoites.
ii. The sporozoites infect the liver cells and develop into merozoites, which are released.
iii. The merozoites infect red blood cells, multiply, and infect new red blood cells.
iv. Some of the merozoites develop into gametes. When the infected person is mitten by
a mosquito, the gametes are taken up.
v. The gametes join inside the mosquito and produce sporozoites.
b. Treatment
i. Derivatives of quinine- cinchona tree
o Chloroquine
o Primaquine
42
21. 3 benefits of protists
a. Live in digestive tract of humans and animals that humans eat
b. We benefit from the gas which they produce
c. They recycle important chemicals such as:
i. Nitrogen
ii. Phosphorus
iii. Carbon
22. Endosymbiosis
a. Process through which protists evolved.
23. Reproduction of Protists
a. Sexual reproduction in Unicellular protists
i. Example- chlamydomonas
ii. It can reproduce both sexually ( by gametes) and asexually (by zoospores).
b. Sexual reproduction in Multicellular protists- 2 types
i. Ulva- alternation of generations
o Has 2 distinct multicellular phases:
 Sporophyte generation- diploid spore producing phase which produces
reproductive cells called sporangia
 Gametophyte generation- haploid gamete producing phase which produces
gametes by meiosis.
ii. Spirogyra- conjugation
o Conjugation is the temporary union of 2 protists to exchange nuclear material.
24. 3 uses of fungi
a. Yeasts are useful in baking, brewing, and wine making
b. Other fungi provide the flavor and aroma of certain cheeses
c. Antibiotics like penicillin are produces by fungi
d. Some species are used to ferment soy sauce and produce citric acid
25. Classification of fungi into 3 phyla- characteristics and 1 example of each phyla
Phylum
Characteristics
Examples
Zygomycota
Sexual spores formed in zygosporangia. Hyphae
have no walls.
Black bread molds
Ascomycota
Sexual spores formed in asci. Hyphae divided by
walls.
Morels, truffles,
yeasts, and cup fungi
Basidiomycota
Sexual spores formed in basidia. Hyphae divided
by walls.
Mushrooms, rusts,
smuts, puffballs
26. What are Deuteromycetes?
a. Imperfect fungi
b. Sometimes considered as the 4th phylum
c. Don’t have a sexual stage
d. Mostly disease causing
e. Have been reclassified to fall under phylum Ascomycetes
27. Scientific names for following species- bread mold, mushroom, yeast
43
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
a. Bread mold- Rhizopus Stolonifer
b. Mushroom- Amanita Muscaria
c. Yeast- Sacchromyces Cerevisiae
Fungal partnerships- mycorrizhae and lichens
a. Mycorrizhae
i. Relationship between fungi and vascular plant roots
ii. Helps transfer phosphorus and other minerals while plant supplies carbohydrates to
fungus
b. Lichens
i. Symbiosis between fungi and photosynthetic partner like algae, cyanobacterium or
both
ii. The photosynthetic partner supplies carbohydrates to fungus and gets protection
from environment in return
3 diseases caused by fungi
a. Athlete’s foot
b. Ringworm infection
c. Thrush
3 advantageous features of plants
a. Conducting tissue
i. Plants have a vascular system that distributes materials effectively.
ii. Plants are classified as vascular or non vascular plants.
b. Seeds
i. Protection
ii. Nourishment
iii. Plant dispersal
iv. Delayed growth
c. Flowers
i. Produce pollen and seeds
ii. Attract insects, birds, bats, animals- help in pollination
Examples of non vascular plants
a. Mosses
b. Liverworts
c. Hornworts
Examples of seedless vascular plants
a. Ferns
b. Ferns allies
i. Whisk ferns
ii. Club mosses
iii. Horsetails
Examples of vascular seed plants
a. Gymnosperms
i. Conifers
ii. Cycads
iii. Ginkgo
iv. Gnetophytes
b. Angiosperms
i. Monocots
o Iris
44
o Tulip
o Aloe vera
o Wheat
o Rice
ii. Dicots
o Daisies
o Sunflowers
o Roses
o Tomatoes
o Peas
34. Types of angiosperms (Monocots vs. Dicots and examples)
Monocots




Flowering plants with one seed (cotyledon)
Flowers in parts with multiples of three
Long narrow leaves with parallel veins
Examples- iris, tulip, aloe vera, wheat, rice
Dicots

Flowering plant with two seed leaves
(cotyledon)
 Flowers in parts with multiples of 2,4, or 5
 Leaves have branched veins
 Example- daisies, sunflower, roses,
tomatoes, peas
35. Structures involved in sexual reproduction in plants
a. Archegonium
i. The structure that produces the egg
b. Anthredium
i. The structure that produces the sperm
c. Sporangium
i. The structure that produces the spore
d. Structures of seed plants
i. Pollen grain
o Immature male gametophyte
ii. Ovule
o The structure where the female gametophyte develops
iii. Pollen tube
o The structure that helps the sperm to pass directly to an egg and fertilize it.
36. Four parts of a flower
a. Petal
b. Pistil
c. Stamen
d. Sepal
37. 3 types of modified stems and 1 example of each
a. Rhizome
i. Iris
ii. Fern
iii. Sugar cane
b. Bulb
i. Onion
ii. Daffodil
iii. Tulip
c. Tuber
45
i. Potato
ii. Caladium
38. 3 methods of plant propagation and one example of each
Method
Description
Examples
Budding and
grafting
Small stems from one plant are attached to larger
stems or roots of another plant.
Hybrid roses,
grape vines, fruit
and nut trees
Taking cuttings
Leaves or pieces of stems or roots are cut from one
plant and used to grow new individuals.
Figs, African
violets, and
ornamental trees
and shrubs
Tissue culture
Pieces of tissue from one plant are placed on a
sterile medium and used to grow new individuals.
Orchids, potatoes,
and many
houseplants
39. 3 tissue layers of a vascular plant- dermal, ground, and vascular (xylem and phloem)
a. Dermal tissue
i. Forms the protective outer layer of a plant
ii. On non woody plants its called epidermis
iii. On woody stems and roots, it consists of a layer of dead cells and is called inside of
cork
b. Ground tissue
i. Makes up much of non woody plants including roots, stems, and leaves
ii. Usually made up of cells that are alive and keep their nucleus after they mature
iii. In leaves, it has chloroplasts and performs photosynthesis
iv. In stems and roots, it mainly helps in the storage of water, sugar, and starch
c. Vascular tissue
i. Forms strands that conduct water, minerals, and organic compounds throughout a
vascular plant
o Xylem- thick walled cells that conduct water and minerals nutrients
 Types of cells found in xylem
 Tracheids- are narrow, elongated and tapered at each end. Water flows
from one tracheid to next through pits, which are thin areas in the cell walls
 Vessels- are wider than tracheids and have large perforations in their ends
and allow water to flow quickly between vessels
o Phloem- conduct sugars and other nutrients through plant body
 It has conducting strands known as sieve tubes
 They have companion cells that carry out cellular respiration, protein
synthesis, and other metabolic functions
40. 3 types of roots and one example of each
a. Taproot
i. A root from which several other smaller roots may branch
ii. Examples
o Radish
o Carrots
46
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
b. Fibrous root
i. Made up of many roots of the same size
ii. Example
o Grasses
c. Adventitious roots system
i. Have plants with roots growing from above ground stems or leaves
ii. Examples
o Orchids
o Corn
Different layers of a leaf
a. Upper epidermis
b. Palisade layer- packed columnar cells
c. Spongy layer- row of loose spherical cells
d. Lower epidermis
Movement of water in plants
a. Water vapor exits the leaves through transpiration
b. The loss of water creates a pull that pulls water up through the xylem
c. Water drawn into the roots from the soil by osmosis moves up the stem
Perfect, imperfect, complete and incomplete flowers
a. Complete flower
i. A flower that has all 4 parts
b. Incomplete flower
i. A flower that does not have all 4 parts
c. Perfect flower
i. A flower that has both stamens and pistils
d. Imperfect flower
i. A flower that does not have both stamens and pistils
Simple leaves vs. Compound leaves
a. Simple leaves have an undivided blade
b. Compound leaves have 2 or more leaflets
Meristems
a. Regions of active cell division where plants grow y producing new cells
Plant hormones- auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins
a. Auxins
i. Are produced in the apical Meristems
ii. Stimulate elongation
b. Gibberellins
i. Produce dramatic increases in size, particularly in stems and fruit
c. Cytokinins
i. Are produced in growing roots in developing fruits and seeds
ii. Stimulate cell division and the growth or lateral buds and cause dormant seeds to
sprout
47. Plant types- perennial, deciduous, evergreen, annuals, and biennials
a. Perennial
i. Lives for several years
ii. Reproduces many times or only once
47
iii. Examples- iris, daffodils, chrysanthemums
b. Deciduous
i. Drops its leaves every year
ii. Examples- elms, maples, grapevines
c. Evergreen
i. Drops a few leaves throughout a year
ii. Examples- junipers, firs, pines
d. Annuals
i. Completes its life cycle and dies within a growing season
ii. Examples- sunflower, beans, corn
e. Biennials
i. Are flowering plants that take two growing seasons to complete their life cycles
ii. Examples- carrots, parsley, onions
48. Tropism- phototropism, gravitropism, and thigmotropism
a. Tropics is a response in which a plant either grows towards or away from a stimulus
b. Types of tropism
i. Phototropism
o Response to light
ii. Gravitropism
o Response to gravity
iii. Thigmotropism
o Response to touch
49. Major mineral nutrients required by plants
a. Nitrogen
i. Part of proteins, nucleic acids, chlorophylls, ATP, and coenzymes; promotes growth of
green parts
b. Phosphorus
i. Part of ATP, ADP, nucleic acids, phospholipids of cell membranes, and some
coenzymes
c. Potassium
i. Needed for active transport, enzyme activation, osmotic balance, and stomatal
opening
50. Long day vs. short day plants and one example of each
a. Long day plants
i. Flower when exposed to a short period of darkness or to a long period of g darkness
interrupted by a brief period of light
ii. Example- iris
b. Short day plants
i. Flower only when exposed to an extended period of darkness every night—and thus a
short period of light during the day
ii. Example-chrysanthemum
51. 3 types of body symmetry and 1 example of each
a. Asymmetry
i. Irregular in shape
ii. Example
o Sponges
48
b. Radial symmetry
i. Body parts arranged around an axis
ii. Examples
o Star fish
o Sea anemone
c. Bilateral symmetry
i. A plane passing through the animal’s midline divides the animal into mirror image
halves
ii. Examples
o Humans
o Dogs
o Butterflies
52. 3 characteristic features about the following phyla/class and 1 example of an organism belonging to
each of the phyla/class – Porifera, Cnidaria, Annelida, Arthropods, Echinoderms, Chordates(
Subphylum Vertebrata, Class Chondrichthyes, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammals)
a. Phylum Porifera
i. Multicellular
ii. Lacks true tissues
iii. Asymmetrical
iv. Example- Sponge
b. Phylum Cnidaria
i. 2 germ layers
ii. Radial symmetry
iii. Acoelomate
iv. Example- Jellyfish
c. Phylum Annelida
i. 3 germ layers
ii. Bilateral symmetry
iii. Coelomate
iv. Example- Earthworm
d. Phylum Arthropods
i. 3 germ layers
ii. Bilateral symmetry
iii. Coelomate
iv. Example- Spider
e. Phylum Echinodermata
i. 3 germ layers
ii. Radial symmetry in adults only
iii. Coelomate
iv. Example- Starfish
f. Phylum Chordata
i. 3 germ layers
ii. Bilateral symmetry
iii. Coelomate
iv. Example- _______________________
g. Subphylum Vertebrata
i. Vertebral column
ii. Head
49
iii. Endoskeleton
iv. Example- _______________________
h. Class Chondrichthyes
i. Jaws
ii. Paired fins
iii. 2 chambered heart
iv. Example- Shark
i. Class Amphibia
i. Some have tails
ii. Ectothermic
iii. 3 chambered heart
iv. Example- Frog
j. Class Reptilia
i. 4 chambered heart
ii. Ectothermic
iii. Internal fertilization
iv. Example- Snake
k. Class Aves
i. 4 chambered heart
ii. Beak
iii. Endothermic
iv. Example- Birds
l. Class Mammalia
i. 4 chambered heart
ii. Endothermic
iii. Most have 4 legs
iv. Example- Mammal
50