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Transcript
5/10/2012 1 Chapter 2: Learning Principles and Applications 2 Learning is… • a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience. • basic to our understanding of human behavior. • involved in nearly all aspects of life. • acquired in a variety of ways. – Classical conditioning – Operant conditioning – Modeling • 3 Classical Conditioning • Stems from the work of Ivan Pavlov – Discovered he could make dogs salivate by ringing a bell. – Identified the elements of Classical Conditioning • Unconditioned stimulus – leads to a certain response without previous training • Unconditioned response – occurs naturally and automatically when UCS is presented • Conditioned stimulus – neutral stimulus that, after training, leads to a response • Conditioned response – a learned response 4 Classical Conditioning • Is the controlling of an animal’s or person’s responses by attaching an old response to a new stimulus. – Many reflex responses can be conditioned to occur when the correct CS is presented – Conditioned responses are learned gradually 5 Classical Conditioning • Generalization – responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli. • Discrimination – the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli. • Extinction – the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response because the reinforcement is withheld or because the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the UCS. 6 Operant Conditioning • A form of conditioning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in corresponding increases or decreases in the likelihood that similar actions will occur again. • AKA learning from the consequences of behavior. 7 Operant Conditioning • Differs from classical conditioning in two ways – The control of the learning is in the hands of the learner • The learner must behave in a way that produces some consequences – Operant conditioning is not limited to reflexive responses • May involve the acquisition of a wide range of voluntary behaviors not just automatic, reflexive behaviors. 8 Operant Conditioning - Reinforcement • Reinforcement – immediately following a particular response with a reward in order to strengthen that response. 1 5/10/2012 – AKA a stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated. – The nature of the reinforcement depends of the effect it has on the learner. – Reinforcers may include: social approval, money, and extra privileges. 9 Operant Conditioning – Schedules of Reinforcement • Schedules of reinforcement refer to the types and frequencies of reinforcements. • Two basic types of schedules – Continuous - reinforcing every response – Intermittent • varying the type and frequency of the response • Usually leads to more stable and persistent responses 10 Operant Conditioning – Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed-ratio schedule – a specific number of correct responses is required before reinforcement can be obtained. • Variable-ratio schedule – a variable number of responses are required before reinforcement can be obtained. 11 Operant Conditioning – Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed-interval schedule – a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit reinforcement. • Variable-interval schedule – varying amounts of time must elapse before a response will obtain reinforcement. • 12 Operant Conditioning - Signals • Signals – behavioral cues (or stimuli) that are associated with reward or punishment. • Conditioned reinforcer – a stimulus that increases the frequency of a response because it has become a signal for a stimulus which is reinforcing. • Primary reinforcers – natural rewards 13 Operant Conditioning – Aversive Control • The process of influencing behavior by means of aversive, or unpleasant, stimuli. – Two ways aversive stimuli can affect behavior • Negative reinforcers • Punishers 14 Operant Conditioning – Aversive Control • Negative reinforcement – increasing the strength of a given response by removing or preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs. – Two types • Escape conditioning – The training of an organism to remove or terminate an unpleasant stimulus. • Avoidance conditioning – the training of an organism to remove or withdraw from an unpleasant stimulus before it starts. 15 Operant Conditioning – 2 5/10/2012 Aversive Control • Punishment – an unpleasant consequence that decreases the frequency of the behavior that produced it. • Negative reinforcement and punishment operate in opposite ways – Negative reinforcement - escape or avoidance behavior is repeated – Punishment – behavior that is punished is not repeated 16 Operant Conditioning – Aversive Control • Disadvantages of using aversive control – Aversive stimuli can produce unwanted side effects such as rage, aggression, and fear. • Leads to two or more problem behaviors – A second problem is that people learn to avoid the person delivering the aversive consequences. Can lead to the inability to correct inappropriate behavior. – Punishment may suppress rather than eliminate behaviors. 17 Factors that Affect Learning • Feedback – information received after an action as to its effectiveness or correctness. • Transfer – The effects of past learning on the ability to learn new tasks. • Practice – the repetition of a task – Helps bind responses together – Key element in learning – Time important element – Spacing out practice better than doing it all at once – Mental practice works – but not as effective 18 Learning Strategies • Help us to transfer learning from one experience to another. • If strategies are successful then we are more likely to use it again. • We can learn to learn – Learning strategies and principles that can be applied later can be more important than specific facts 19 Learning Strategies • Helplessness and Laziness can result when a person has numerous experiences in which his actions have no effect on his world. – If rewards come without effort, a person never learns to work (learned laziness). – If pain comes no matter how hard one tries, a person gives up (learned helplessness). – Learned helplessness is a major cause of depression 20 Learning Strategies • Three important elements of helplessness – Stability – refers to the person’s belief that the state of helplessness results from a permanent characteristic. – The belief can be specific or global (globality) – The problem can be seen as outside of the person • Stability and globality are internal 21 Learning Complicated Skills • Shaping – a process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new responses out of old. • Response chains – responses that follow one another in a sequence. 3 5/10/2012 – Each response produces a signal for the next. – Chaining is important to learning new skills. – Chains or responses are organized into larger response patterns. – Often need to learn simple skills first! 22 Modeling • Learning by imitating others • Three types of modeling – The behavior of another increases the chances we will do the same. • No learning involved • Perform old responses – Observational learning – simple imitation – Disinhibition – watching someone engaging in a threatening activity with impunity gives one the courage to perform the same act. 23 Behavior Modification • AKA B-Mod • The systematic application of learning principles to change people’s actions and feelings. • Steps in B-Mod – Define the problem in concrete terms – Develop a system of rewards and punishments 24 Computer-Assisted Instruction • The learner has immediate feedback • Learner reviews only material he does not understand • Constant incentive to learn because of many positive reinforcements • Avoids the aversive aspects of classroom learning (less negative feedback) • Students can progress at an individual rate • Students can choose instruction paths. 25 Token Economies • A form of conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with tokens, which can be accumulated and exchanged for various rewards. 26 Self Control • Important element in some b-mod programs – i.e. smoking cessation programs – Improving study habits 4