Download Chapter 2: Learning Principles and Applications Learning is… • a

5/10/2012
1
Chapter 2: Learning
Principles and Applications
2
Learning is…
• a relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.
• basic to our understanding of human behavior.
• involved in nearly all aspects of life.
• acquired in a variety of ways.
– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning
– Modeling
•
3
Classical Conditioning
• Stems from the work of Ivan Pavlov
– Discovered he could make dogs salivate by ringing a bell.
– Identified the elements of Classical Conditioning
• Unconditioned stimulus – leads to a certain response without previous training
• Unconditioned response – occurs naturally and automatically when UCS is presented
• Conditioned stimulus – neutral stimulus that, after training, leads to a response
• Conditioned response – a learned response
4
Classical Conditioning
• Is the controlling of an animal’s or person’s responses by attaching an old response to a
new stimulus.
– Many reflex responses can be conditioned to occur when the correct CS is presented
– Conditioned responses are learned gradually
5
Classical Conditioning
• Generalization – responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli.
• Discrimination – the ability to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli.
• Extinction – the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response because the
reinforcement is withheld or because the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented
without the UCS.
6
Operant Conditioning
• A form of conditioning in which a certain action is reinforced or punished, resulting in
corresponding increases or decreases in the likelihood that similar actions will occur again.
• AKA learning from the consequences of behavior.
7
Operant Conditioning
• Differs from classical conditioning in two ways
– The control of the learning is in the hands of the learner
• The learner must behave in a way that produces some consequences
– Operant conditioning is not limited to reflexive responses
• May involve the acquisition of a wide range of voluntary behaviors not just automatic,
reflexive behaviors.
8
Operant Conditioning - Reinforcement
• Reinforcement – immediately following a particular response with a reward in order to
strengthen that response.
1
5/10/2012
– AKA a stimulus or event that affects the likelihood that a behavior will be repeated.
– The nature of the reinforcement depends of the effect it has on the learner.
– Reinforcers may include: social approval, money, and extra privileges.
9
Operant Conditioning –
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Schedules of reinforcement refer to the types and frequencies of reinforcements.
• Two basic types of schedules
– Continuous - reinforcing every response
– Intermittent
• varying the type and frequency of the response
• Usually leads to more stable and persistent responses
10
Operant Conditioning –
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed-ratio schedule – a specific number of correct responses is required before
reinforcement can be obtained.
• Variable-ratio schedule – a variable number of responses are required before reinforcement
can be obtained.
11
Operant Conditioning –
Schedules of Reinforcement
• Fixed-interval schedule – a specific amount of time must elapse before a response will elicit
reinforcement.
• Variable-interval schedule – varying amounts of time must elapse before a response will
obtain reinforcement.
•
12
Operant Conditioning - Signals
• Signals – behavioral cues (or stimuli) that are associated with reward or punishment.
• Conditioned reinforcer – a stimulus that increases the frequency of a response because it
has become a signal for a stimulus which is reinforcing.
• Primary reinforcers – natural rewards
13
Operant Conditioning –
Aversive Control
• The process of influencing behavior by means of aversive, or unpleasant, stimuli.
– Two ways aversive stimuli can affect behavior
• Negative reinforcers
• Punishers
14
Operant Conditioning –
Aversive Control
• Negative reinforcement – increasing the strength of a given response by removing or
preventing a painful stimulus when the response occurs.
– Two types
• Escape conditioning – The training of an organism to remove or terminate an
unpleasant stimulus.
• Avoidance conditioning – the training of an organism to remove or withdraw from an
unpleasant stimulus before it starts.
15
Operant Conditioning –
2
5/10/2012
Aversive Control
• Punishment – an unpleasant consequence that decreases the frequency of the behavior
that produced it.
• Negative reinforcement and punishment operate in opposite ways
– Negative reinforcement - escape or avoidance behavior is repeated
– Punishment – behavior that is punished is not repeated
16
Operant Conditioning –
Aversive Control
• Disadvantages of using aversive control
– Aversive stimuli can produce unwanted side effects such as rage, aggression, and fear.
• Leads to two or more problem behaviors
– A second problem is that people learn to avoid the person delivering the aversive
consequences. Can lead to the inability to correct inappropriate behavior.
– Punishment may suppress rather than eliminate behaviors.
17
Factors that Affect Learning
• Feedback – information received after an action as to its effectiveness or correctness.
• Transfer – The effects of past learning on the ability to learn new tasks.
• Practice – the repetition of a task
– Helps bind responses together
– Key element in learning
– Time important element
– Spacing out practice better than doing it all at once
– Mental practice works – but not as effective
18
Learning Strategies
• Help us to transfer learning from one experience to another.
• If strategies are successful then we are more likely to use it again.
• We can learn to learn
– Learning strategies and principles that can be applied later can be more important than
specific facts
19
Learning Strategies
• Helplessness and Laziness can result when a person has numerous experiences in which
his actions have no effect on his world.
– If rewards come without effort, a person never learns to work (learned laziness).
– If pain comes no matter how hard one tries, a person gives up (learned helplessness).
– Learned helplessness is a major cause of depression
20
Learning Strategies
• Three important elements of helplessness
– Stability – refers to the person’s belief that the state of helplessness results from a
permanent characteristic.
– The belief can be specific or global (globality)
– The problem can be seen as outside of the person
• Stability and globality are internal
21
Learning Complicated Skills
• Shaping – a process in which reinforcement is used to sculpt new responses out of old.
• Response chains – responses that follow one another in a sequence.
3
5/10/2012
– Each response produces a signal for the next.
– Chaining is important to learning new skills.
– Chains or responses are organized into larger response patterns.
– Often need to learn simple skills first!
22
Modeling
• Learning by imitating others
• Three types of modeling
– The behavior of another increases the chances we will do the same.
• No learning involved
• Perform old responses
– Observational learning – simple imitation
– Disinhibition – watching someone engaging in a threatening activity with impunity gives
one the courage to perform the same act.
23
Behavior Modification
• AKA B-Mod
• The systematic application of learning principles to change people’s actions and feelings.
• Steps in B-Mod
– Define the problem in concrete terms
– Develop a system of rewards and punishments
24
Computer-Assisted Instruction
• The learner has immediate feedback
• Learner reviews only material he does not understand
• Constant incentive to learn because of many positive reinforcements
• Avoids the aversive aspects of classroom learning (less negative feedback)
• Students can progress at an individual rate
• Students can choose instruction paths.
25
Token Economies
• A form of conditioning in which desirable behavior is reinforced with tokens, which can be
accumulated and exchanged for various rewards.
26
Self Control
• Important element in some b-mod programs
– i.e. smoking cessation programs
– Improving study habits
4