Download The Roman Empire (after 27 BC)

The Roman political system
The Roman Republic (509 – 27 BC)
Rome had been a monarchy since its earliest days, but in 509 its last king, Tarquin the
Proud, was overthrown, and Rome became a republic. The Republican system of
government was semi-democratic, with popularly elected officials ruling side-by side with an
oligarchical Senate. The system was full of checks and balances, to prevent the return of
another tyrant.
The Senate
The Senate advised the consuls. It was made up of men from the wealthiest families in
Rome. There were about 600 Senators, all former high-ranking magistrates. They were
appointed for life by the censors, who in turn were elected by the Assembly. Although the
Senate’s decisions were not legally binding, usually they were followed by the magistrates.
The Senate’s primary responsibility was foreign policy.
The Assemblies
The various Assemblies were elected by adult, male citizens of Rome. They, in turn, elected
the various magistrates: consuls, praetors, quaestors, aediles, censors and tribunes. They
also enacted legislation, presided over major criminal trials, declared war and peace, and
made treaties with other states.
The cursus hornorum
The cursus honorum was the order of public office to held by aspiring politicians. It started
with ten years of military service. Roman administrators would then progress to quaestor,
aedile, praetor and finally consul. All of these positions gave the holder membership of the
Senate, once their service was complete.
Consuls
The two consuls jointly administered the Roman Republic (in order to prevent the return of
tyranny). They consuls had supreme power (called ‘imperium’) in both military and civil
matters. They also had the power of veto (Latin for “I forbid it”), so both had to agree on a
policy before it could be introduced. The consuls were elected for a term of one year. After
serving their term, they could not be re-elected for another ten years.
Praetors
The praetors were the second most important officials in Rome. They controlled the civil
administration, and could also command provincial armies. Like the consuls, they were
appointed for a one year term. Between 6 and 8 were appointed each year. The minimum
age was 39.
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Aediles
Aediles were responsible for water and food supplies, as well as the construction and
maintenance of public buildings. They also organised public games. For aediles were elected
each year. The minimum age was 36.
Quaestors
Quaestors assisted the consuls and the provincial governors with the financial affairs of
Rome. Ten quaestors were elected each year. The minimum age was 30.
Censors
The censors conducted the census of Roman citizens. They had the power to appoint and
purge members of the Senate. They were elected for a period of 18 months.
Tribunes
The ten tribunes were elected by the Assemblies to represent the poor. They could veto any
decision of the Senate or a magistrate that affected the poor. Tribunes could present
legislation to the Senate, and could arrest magistrates if they were in breach of the law.
Provincial governors
As Rome began to conquer other lands, governors were appointed to run these provinces.
They governors were either former consuls (known as Proconsuls) or former praetors
(Propraetors). They acted like mini-tyrants in their particular provinces, with power over the
courts and the army. This became a major problem as the empire expanded, as powerful
provincial governors were tempted to return home with their armies and take control of
Rome. For this reason, no commander was allowed to enter Italy with his army. Two famous
governors broke this rule: Sulla and Julius Caesar. Both became dictators for a time.
Dictator
In times of emergency, the Senate could appoint a dictator, to rule Rome with absolute
power until the emergency passed. The position was abolished after Julius Caesar was
assassinated in 44 BC.
The Roman Empire (after 27 BC)
The collapse of the Republic
By the middle of the 1st century BC, the Roman Empire had become so large that it was
increasingly difficult for the government to administer it. Provincial governors became so
powerful that they could use their wealth and their legions to subvert the political
institutions of Rome. Julius Caesar fought a civil war against his rival Pompey the Great,
whom he defeated. He then appointed himself dictator for life (49 BC), but was assassinated
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by Brutus and Cassius in 44 BC. They, in turn, were in turn defeated by Caesar’s adopted
son, Octavian, and his lieutenant Mark Antony in 42 BC. Octavian and Antony divided the
empire between them, with Octavian based in the West, and Antony in the East. The two
leaders eventually fell out, and fought each other for control. In 31 BC Octavian was
victorious at the Battle of Actium. Over the next four years, he was granted extraordinary
powers by the Senate so that, in effect, he became Rome’s first emperor. In the process, he
changed his name to Caesar Augustus.
The emperor
The Roman Emperor was called the princeps, or first citizen. His power (imperium) derived
from his ability to appoint magistrates (a power previously held by the censors), his control
over Rome’s legions (previously exercised by the Proconsuls), and his position as Rome’s
religious leader (Pontifex Maximus). He also had the power to declare war and negotiate
treaties with foreign powers.
Prefects
Augustus revived the position of prefect, following the transition from Republic to Empire.
The prefect had responsibility for the day-to-day running of the city of Rome. To enforce his
authority, he was given control of Rome’s policie force. The position was appointed by the
emperor.
Roman emperors
Augustus
Tiberius
Caligula (Gaius)
Claudius
Nero
Galba
Otho
Vitellius
Vespasian
Titus
Domitian
Nerva
Trajan
Hadrian
Antoninus
Marcus Aurelius
27 BC – AD 14
AD 14 – 37
AD 37 – 41
AD 41– 54
AD 54 – 68
AD 68– 69
AD 69
AD 69
AD 69 – 79
AD 79 – 81
AD 81 – 96
AD 96 – 98
AD 98 – 117
AD 117 – 138
AD 138 – 161
AD 161 – 180
Granted power by the Senate and Assemblies
Son of Augustus’ third wife; adopted by Augustus
Great grandson of Augustus; murdered by his enemies
Uncle of Caligula; proclaimed emperor by the army
Great-great grandson of Augustus; committed suicide
Seized power following Nero’s death
Appointed by the army, following Galba’s murder
Seized power after defeating Otho in battle
Seized power after murdering Vitellius
Son of Vespasian; died of fever
Son of Vespasian; murdered by his enemies
Appointed by the Senate
Adopted son of Nerva
Adopted son of Trajan
Adopted son of Hadrian
Adopted son of Antoninus
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Local government
Local government under the Republic
Cities and towns in Italy were run as independent municipalities, meaning they elected their
own officials. Only men could vote and stand for political office.
Each city elected four magistrates – the decuriones.
 The most important officials were the two duumviri, who were responsible for the
political running of the city and for the administration of justice. They presided over the
curia (town council) and the courts. They also controlled revenue and taxation. The
duumviri were the local equivalent of consuls, except they had no military power.
 The duumviri were assisted by the two aediles, who oversaw public works and various
day-to-day activities (looking after the markets, temples and streets). You had to serve
as an aedile before you could be elected duumvir.
 Officials were elected for a term of one year.
 The curia (town council) was the local equivalent of the Senate, and consisted of 100
former magistrates. It made local laws, and its members were appointed for life.
 In an emergency, the Council could appoint a Praefectus Iure Dicundo, who was in effect
a dictator. He would run the city until the emergency was over. This was the case
following the earthquake of 62 AD in Pompeii.
 Other important magistrates in the city were the quinquennales. They were former
duumviri who were elected every five years. They had the power to revise the local
citizenship rolls and to appoint former magistrates to the curia. They could also dismiss
people from the curia, if they breached the rules (for example, if they committed a
crime or if their wealth fell below the required level).
The duumviri were selected from among the wealthiest men in the city – mainly because no
others could afford the cost of getting themselves elected. Once in office, they would use
their influence to gain more political and economic power.
Local government under the Empire
Under the Empire (i.e. during the 1st century AD), the governing process of Italian cities
remained the same, except that local laws and decisions were subject to imperial decree.
This meant that the emperor could overrule decisions made by the duumviri and curia. He
could also impose new laws upon towns and cities. An example of this was Nero’s decision
to ban gladiatorial contests in Pompeii for ten years, following the riots of AD 59.
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