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Ancient Rome David Wood Western Civilizations Rome: Importance Rome was essentially the “successor” to Greece and the “carrier” of Greek civilization It would later serve as a political model for later Europe Held up as a standard of success for nations. Importance, con’t model for later monarchies model for later, mixed constitutions Great Britain, U.S., etc. model for most European legal systems model for the concept of citizenship Roman History The Regal Age: ca. 779-509 B.C. The Republic: 509-27 B.C. The Empire: 27 B.C.-1453 A.D. Early Empire: 27 B.C.-325 A.D. Later Empire: 325 A.D.-1453 A.D. Modern scholars believe that in the 8th century B.C., the inhabitants of some small Latin settlements on hills in the TIBER VALLEY united and established a common meeting place, the FORUM, around which the city of Rome grew. FORUM THE ROMAN MONARCHY to 509 B.C. According to tradition, early Rome was ruled by KINGS elected by the people. The king's executive power was conferred by a POPULAR ASSEMBLY made up of all arms-bearing citizens. The king turned for advice to a council of nobles, called the SENATE. Each senator had lifelong tenure and the members of this group and their families constituted the PATRICIAN class. The other class of Romans, the PLEBEIANS (commoners) included small farmers, artisans, and many clients (dependents of patrician landowners). In return for a livelihood, the clients gave their patrician patrons political support in the ASSEMBLY ROMAN SENATE EARLY REPUBLIC 509-133 B.C. In 509 B.C., according to tradition, the PATRICIANS expelled the last Etruscan king and established a REPUBLIC. The power to rule was transferred to two new officials called CONSULS. Elected annually from the patrician class, the consul exercised their power in the interests of that class. Although the PATRICIANS controlled the government, they found themselves unable to exist without the plebeians. The PLEBEIANS produced the FOOD and supplied the LABOR that kept the Roman economy going. They also supplied the soldiers for the Roman MILITARY – especially important since Rome was in continual military conflict during the age of the Republic. In the beginning most of the people elected to the Senate were patricians. Patricians controlled the law since they were the only citizens allowed to be judges. Plebeians had the right to vote, but could not hold public office until 287 B.C, when they gained equality with patricians. PLEBEIAN STRUGGLE FOR EQUAL RIGHTS For more than two centuries following the establishment of the Republic, the plebeians struggled for political and social equality. Outright civil war was averted by the willingness of the patricians to compromise. Much of the plebeians’ success in this struggle was also due to their tactics of collective action and to their having organized a corporate group within the state. The unofficial body was known as the PLEBEIAN COUNCIL. It was presided over by plebeian officials called TRIBUNES, whose job was to safeguard the interests of the plebeians and to negotiate with the consuls and the Senate. The advancement of the PLEBEIANS during the early Republic took two main lines: the safeguarding of their FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS and the progressive enlargement of their share of POLITICAL POWER. FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS Because the consuls often interpreted Rome's unwritten customary law to suit PATRICIAN INTERESTS, the plebeians demanded that it be written down. As a result, about 450 B.C., the law was inscribed on twelve tablets of bronze and set up publicly in the Forum. The LAW OF THE TWELVE TABLETS was the first landmark in the long history of Roman law. The plebeians in time acquired other fundamental rights and safeguards: They secured the right to APPEAL A DEATH SENTENCE imposed by a consul and to be retried before the popular assembly. The tribunes gained a VETO POWER over any legislation or executive act that threatened the rights of the plebeians. MARRIAGE between patricians and plebeians, prohibited by the Law of the Twelve Tablets, was legalized. The enslavement of citizens for DEBT was abolished POLITICAL POWER Little by little, the plebeian class acquired more power in the functioning of government. In 367 B.C., ONE CONSULSHIP was reserved for the plebeians. Before the end of the century, they were eligible to hold other important positions: PRAETOR (in charge of the law courts), QUAESTOR (treasurer), CENSOR (supervisor of public morals and state contracts). Some plebeians succeeded in gaining entry to the SENATE. The long struggle for equality ended in 287 B.C. when the PLEBEIAN COUNCIL was recognized as a constitutional body, henceforth known as the TRIBAL ASSEMBLY, with the right to PASS LAWS that were binding on all citizens. The Roman Republic was now technically a democracy, although in actual practice a senatorial aristocracy of patricians and rich plebeians continued to control the state. Ancient Rome had an AGRICULTURAL, SLAVE-BASED ECONOMY whose main purpose was to feed the vast number of citizens and legionaries who populated the Mediterranean region. Agriculture and TRADE, were supplemented by small scale INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION When the Romans conquered the Mediterranean, they took millions of SLAVES to Italy, where they worked on the large plantations or in the houses and workplaces of wealthy citizens. The Italian economy depended on abundant slave labor, with slaves constituting 40 PERCENT OF THE POPULATION. Slaves served as singers, scribes, jewelers, bartenders, and even doctors. One slave trained in medicine was worth the price of 50 agricultural slaves. SLAVERY IN ANCIENT ROME The staple crops of Roman farmers in Italy were various GRAINS, OLIVES, and GRAPES. OLIVE OIL and WINE were among the most important products in the ancient civilized world and led Italy's exports. Farmers could give surplus crops to the government in lieu of a monetary tax. This system allowed rulers to gain popularity with the masses through FREE GRAIN DISTRIBUTION. Unfortunately it also left farmers with little incentive to increase productivity or output, since more crop translated into more taxes (and more free grain distributions). The need to secure GRAINPRODUCING PROVINCES was one important factor that led to expansion and conquest. Improved farming methods learned from the Greeks and Carthaginians encouraged RICH ARISTOCRATS to buy more and more land and, abandoning the cultivation of grain, introduce LARGE-SCALE SCIENTIFIC PRODUCTION of olive oil and wine, or of sheep and cattle. This trend was especially profitable because an abundance of cheap SLAVES from the conquered areas was available to work on the estates. These large slave plantations, called LATIFUNDIA, were now common in Italy, while small farms were the exception. The land problem was further complicated by the government's earlier practice of LEASING part of the territory acquired in the conquest of the Italian peninsula to anyone willing to pay a percentage of the crop or animals raised on it. Only the patricians or wealthy plebeians could afford to lease large tracts of this PUBLIC LAND and in time they treated it as their own property. Plebeian protests had led to an attempt to limit the holdings of a single individual to 320 acres, but the law was never enforced. As a result of expansion, important social and economic problems faced Rome by the middle of the second century B.C. One of the most pressing problems was the DISAPPEARANCE OF THE SMALL LANDOWNER. Burdened by frequent military service, his farm buildings destroyed by war, and unable to compete with the cheap grain imported from the new Roman province of Sicily, the SMALL FARMER SOLD OUT and moved to Rome. Here he joined the unemployed, discontented PROLETARIAT. Religion played a very important role in the daily life of Ancient Rome. The Romans believed that GODS CONTROLLED THEIR LIVES and, as a result, spent a great deal of their time worshipping them. The most important god was JUPITER. He was the king of gods who ruled with his wife JUNO, the goddess of the sky. Other gods includes MARS, MERCURY, NEPTUNE, JANIS, DIANA, VESTA, MINERVA, VENUS. After the reign of the EMPEROR AUGUSTUS (27 BC to AD 14), the emperor was also considered to be a god and he was worshipped on special occasions. TEMPLES to worship the gods were built throughout the Roman Empire. Each family home would also have a small altar and shrine. The Romans had PERSONAL HOUSEHOLD GODS or spirits which were worshipped every day at home. The shrine contained statues of the spirits and the head of the household led family prayers around the shrine each day. In terms of the arts, Roman citizens were practical people who spent less time on art, literature, and philosophy and more time on ENGINEERING, CONSTRUCTION, and MILITARY OPERATIONS. ENGINEERING PRACTICES In designing their bridges and aqueducts, the Romans placed a series of STONE ARCHES next to one another to provide mutual support. Fourteen AQUEDUCTS, stretching a total of 265 miles, supplied some 50 gallons of water daily for each inhabitant of Rome. The practical nature of the Romans and their skill and initiative in engineering were demonstrated in the many DAMS, RESERVOIRS, and HARBORS they built. The BARREL VAULT, basically a series of adjoining arches forming a structure resembling a tunnel, was a new method of enclosing space. In the barrel vault the supports of the arches became heavy masonry walls to bear the weight of the vaulted roof. The Romans next developed the CROSS VALUT by intersection two barrel vaults at right angles. Another important advance in architecture was the Roman's success in constructing CONCRETE DOMES on a large scale. The largest of the dome structures was the PANTHEON (temple of all the gods). The standard type of Roman public building was the BASCILICA, a colonnaded structure that became a model for early Christian churches. The Romans developed a distinctive SCULPTURE which was realistic, secular, and individualistic. EQUESTRIAN STATUES sculpted coffins (SARCOPHAGI), and the RELIEFS found on imperial monuments were exceptionally fine works of art. The Romans were particularly skilled in producing floor MOSAICS and in painting FRESCOES. Roman epic, dramatic, and lyric POETRY forms were usually written in conscious imitation of Greek masterpieces. The Romans were attracted to two Hellenistic ethical philosophies: EPICURIANSIM taught that the wise man could achieve happiness simply by freeing his body from pain and his mind from fear -- particularly the fear of death. To reach this goal, men must AVOID BODILY EXCESSES, including those of pleasure, and accept the scientific teaching of Democritus that both body and soul are composed of atoms which fall apart at death. Thus, BEYOND DEATH THERE IS NO EXISTENCE and nothing to fear. STOICISM argued that THE UNIVERSE IS CONTROLLED by some power -- variously called Reason, World Soul, Fortune, and God -- which determines everything that happens. The wise man conforms his will to the World Will and “STOICALLY" ACCEPTS whatever part fortune allots him in the drama of life. Stoicism had a humanizing effect on Roman law by introducing such concepts as the LAW OF NATURE, the LAW OF BROTHERHOOD OF MEN (including slaves), and the view that a man is INNOCENT UNTIL PROVED GUILTY. POLITICAL THEORY AND LEGAL PRINCIPLES Roman political thinkers contributed many governmental theories: The SOCIAL CONTRACT theory (that government originated as a voluntary agreement among citizens). The idea of POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY (that all power ultimately resides with the people). The concept that LAW must be the basis for government. Originally, the wars which the Republic fought were largely DEFENSIVE WARS. Soon, however, the Romans were moving to gain control over neighboring territory in order to NEUTRALIZE THE THREAT OF ATTACK. Their logic was that control over these territories would PREVENT POTENTIAL ATTACK from the people occupying those territories and at the same time provide a buffer region between themselves and potential attackers. Rome gradually expanded for centuries. Expansion, con’t Rome conquered many neighboring nations, but it’s most important to note that they conquered Greece and gained hold of the massive Greek empire created by Alexander the Great. The Empire Unification of the Mediterranean basin and western Europe Extended citizenship Empire wide commerce Roman law Tolerance for local autonomy Rome 117 A.D. The End of the Roman Republic A successful Roman general and famous speaker, Julius Caesar, was a governor of the territory of Gaul and managed to take control of many nearby territories. Fearing him the Roman Senate ordered him to resign…but he had other ideas. Caesar fought for control and won, becoming the dictator of the Roman world, ending the Roman Republic. The Roman Empire Less than a year after gaining power a group of angered Senators stabbed Caesar to death on the floor of the Roman Senate. (March 15, 44 B.C.) This caused a civil war that lasted several years. In 27 B.C., Caesar’s adopted son, Octavian was named the first emperor of Rome. The Roman Empire An empire is a nation or group of territories ruled by a single powerful leader, or emperor. As emperor Octavian took the name Augustus. Augustus ruled the Roman Empire for more than 40 years, known as the Augustan Age. The Augustan Age During the rule of Augustus the Roman empire continued to expand. Augustus kept soldiers along all the borders to keep peace in the Roman world. During this time architects and engineers built many new public buildings. The Augustan Age During this time trade increased with olive oil, wine, pottery, marble, and grain being shipped all across the Mediterranean. Lighthouses were constructed to guide ships into port. This was also a time of great Roman literature. Weakened by civil war, the Roman Republic gave way to the ROMAN EMPIRE, with its AUTOCRATIC form of government and LARGE TERRITORIAL HOLDINGS in Europe and around the Mediterranean. Several events marked the transition from Republic to Empire, including JULIUS CAESAR’s appointment as perpetual DICTATOR (44 BC), the victory of OCTAVIAN at the Battle of Actium (31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian of the title AUGUSTUS. (27 BC). The Rise of Christianity After the death of Augustus in 14 A.D. a new religion begin to spread: Christianity. At first it took hold in the eastern half of the Roman Empire. By 200 A.D. this religion had spread throughout the empire. The Rise of Christianity Christians were viewed with suspicion and suffered persecution and many were punished or killed for their beliefs. Things changed when Constantine became emperor of Rome in 306 A.D. During his reign Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire. The Rise of Christianity Jesus of Nazareth teacher, prophet, revolutionary the Jesus Movement Paul of Tarsus cultural mixture: Jewish and Greek founder of Christianity The Fall of the Roman Empire Rome had quite a run…First a monarchy, then a republic, then an empire – all roads led to Rome for over 1200 years. In the Mediterranean, Rome was in charge. Rome had some wonderful emperors. Rome also suffered from a series of bad, corrupt and just plain crazy emperors. The Fall of the Roman Empire The empire was too large to govern effectively. The army was not what it used to be. There was corruption in the military dishonest generals and non-Roman soldiers. Civil wars broke out between different political groups. The rich became lazy and showed little interest in trying to solve Rome problems. The poor were overtaxed and overworked. They were very unhappy. Prices increased, trade decreased. Emperors were often selected by violence, or by birth, so the head of government was not always a capable leader. The population was shrinking due to starvation and disease. That made it difficult to manage farms and government effectively. The increased use of slaves put many Romans out of work The Empire starting shrinking. The Huns, Visigoths, Franks, Vandals, Saxons and other barbarian tribes overran the empire. The Fall of the Roman Empire The ancient Romans tried to solve some of their problems by splitting the Roman Empire in half, hoping that would make the empire easier to manage. Each side had an emperor, but the emperor in charge was the emperor of the western half, the half that included the city of Rome. The Fall of the Roman Empire The Western Roman Empire did not do well. Instead of getting stronger, they became weaker. By 400 AD, it was pretty much over. The Huns, Franks, Vandals, Saxons, Visigoths – any of these barbarian tribes might have been the group that finally brought Rome down. They were all attacking various pieces of the Western Roman Empire. In 476 AD, the Visigoths sacked Rome. Europe entered the Dark Ages. The eastern half of the Roman Empire received a new name – the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire did fine. It lasted for another 1000 years! Fun Facts About Rome The Romans were the first to build aqueducts. The running water, indoor plumbing and sewer system carrying away disease from the population within the Empire wasn't surpassed in capability until very modern times. Fun Facts About Rome In the times of Ancient Rome very few people had baths in their homes. Adults enjoyed going to the public bathhouse. The bathhouse cost very little to get in, so people used them often. The men and the women both used the bathhouse, but at different times during the day. Each group had a scheduled time, although the women's scheduled time was shorter. Bath houses were huge and housed much more than pools. Exercise grounds, gymnastic apparatus, courts for games, libraries, rooms for reading and conversation-all these things could be found in the Roman bath house. The people made a point of going to the bath to meet their friends and associates. Fun Facts About Rome One of the things the Romans are most famous for is their architecture. The Romans brought a lot of new ideas to architecture, of which the three most important are the arch, the baked brick, and the use of cement and concrete. Fun Facts About Rome The Romans built thousands of miles of road to connect the entire empire. These roads were used up until about 100 years ago when technology advanced! Fun Facts About Rome Ancient Rome had as many as 900 public baths. Small baths held about 300 people. The largest bath held 1500 people. Bathhouses were built all over the Roman Empire. The most impressive ones were found in the city of Rome. They were decorated with marble and statues. Fun Facts About Rome