Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Working on your Reference Memory from Space Memory: Basic Concepts • Memory – ability to respond to information that was experienced at an earlier time – Usually study memory using verbal behavior in humans – Use behavior change from earlier experiences in non-human animals • Be aware of the learning performance distinction • Learning and memory are interconnected – the learning process resulting in storage of memory – retrieval of information from memory to demonstrate learning Stages of information processing • Three Stages of information processes: – Acquisition: the process of acquiring or gaining information through some experience – Retention: holding on to information after the experience has ended either in short-term or long-term memory – Retrieval: recalling information from long-term memory – See Table 11.1 – See Information Processing Model The Principles of Learning and Behavior, 7e by Michael Domjan Copyright © 2015 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Types of memory • Categorized by type of information – Declarative: “what” facts that can be stated or described (human centric) • Semantic: general knowledge such as what is a cat • Episodic: autobiographical memory such as petting a cat – Nondeclarative (procedural) “how” information shown by behavior • Skill learning–learning to perform a task requiring motor coordination such tie your shoe laces • Priming–repetition priming–a change in stimulus processing due to prior exposure to the stimulus such red stop lights • Conditioning–the association of two stimuli, or of a stimulus and a response – Classical conditioning (as you already know) – Instrumental conditioning • Perceptual: interpret incoming stimuli by recognizing things such as Types of memory • Categorization by stages of information processing – Iconic memories are the briefest memories and store sensory impressions that only last a few seconds. – Short-term memories (STMs) usually last only for up to 30 seconds or throughout rehearsal. • also known as working memory. – Long-term memories (LTMs) last for days to years. • Long-term memory has a large capacity. • Also known as reference memory Hypothesized Memory Processes: Encoding, Consolidation, and Retrieval Working and Reference Memory • Working memory – short-term retention of info needed for successful completion of current task – In experiments memory for information which is required in order to respond on a particular trial – Should be ‘discarded’ when the task is done because information is no longer useful (and may even interfere with subsequent trials) – Examples: • mechanic fixing a car • Shopping list • Phone number – Although Long-Term memory “reference” is required at the beginning of each task • Retrieve information from long-term memory to use in working memory • Experience doing a task will store information in the long-term reference memory Working and Reference Memory • Reference memory – memory for stable (trial invariant) features of a task – long-term memory for information necessary for successful use of incoming and recently acquired information – Not transient like working memory • However it can be easily modified • Working memory requires proper reference memories Working Memory in Non-Human Animals • Walter S. Hunter (1913) – devised the delayed-response paradigm – a way of studying "symbolic thought" – the capacity for behavior to be guided by the mental representation of an event which was no longer physically present in the environment –H E L L O • The delay duration was used to assess mental representation of symbolic processing in several species – Which demonstrated different capacities in dealing with delay – Rats (10-s), raccoons (25-s), dogs (>5-min) – Change in positional orientation during the delay had no effect on memory of the symbols Delayed Matching to Sample • Used by Blough 1959 to study short-term memory of visual cues with pigeons • currently the most common procedure for studying short-term memory with nonhuman animals • Procedure to study working memory with pigeons – – – – 1. Start cue, illuminate center key, must respond to center key 2. Display sample on center key, must respond to center key 3. Display sample on one side and non-sample on the other side Food reinforcement for responding to the sample • Delayed matching to sample – delay between sample exposure and choice response – the center key is blank during step three – there is a delay between step 2 and step 3 which requires working memory Delayed Matching to Sample • Simultaneous matching to sample – cue for correct response (sample) visible when choice made – sample remains on the center key during set three – Does NOT require working memory • Matching to Sample Examples – Simultaneous Matching-To-Sample – Delayed Matching-To-Sample • Test Schizophrenic individuals using complex patterns as stimuli – Figure 11.1 – Test stimulus for 500 msec followed by choice alternatives – Training with no delay between sample and choice then introduce four or eight second delay – As compared to controls individuals with schizophrenia showed a deficit with delay Procedural Determinants of Delayed Matching to Sample • Nature of the stimulus – Sample characteristics: colors, shapes, line tilt, sounds, • Sample duration – Usually very short sometimes only half a second • Delay interval “retention interval” – From a few seconds up to minutes or hours depending on the particular type of species being tested or type of stimulating be presented – Memory performance is worse with longer delay intervals – Originally explained by Trace Decay Hypothesis • More recent research demonstrates that memory does not just fade automatically there are number of things that reduce memory such as interference which will be covered later – Length of the retention interval on the first training trials has a strong effect on performance at that retention interval Procedural Determinants of Delayed Matching to Sample • White 2001 – trained pigeons to peck at red or green sample stimulus – used several different delay intervals from the beginning of training • Independent groups for 0, 2, 4, or 6 second delays – Do not get typical decline in performance with delay – Responding was best for the delay interval used in training – Can not be explained by the trace decay hypothesis and demonstrates a type of temporal processing of the training procedure – See Figure 11.2 • Matching is similar to instrumental choice behavior – better performance with larger rewards FIGURE 11.2 Accuracy of matching-to-sample performance as a function of delay between the sample and choice stimuli for independent groups of pigeons that were previously trained with delays of 0, 2, 4, or 6 seconds. (Based on “Forgetting Functions,” by R. J. Sargisson & K. G. White, 2001, Animal Learning & Behavior, 29, pp. 193–207.) The Principles of Learning and Behavior, 7e by Michael Domjan Copyright © 2015 Wadsworth Publishing, a division of Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Response Strategies during Matching to sample • Matching to sample is a two-alternative choice task can be solved by – 1. Responding to the correct alternative – 2. Avoiding the incorrect alternative – 3. Both responding to the correct alternative and avoiding the incorrect alternative • Pigeons appear to focus more on finding the correct alternative than on avoiding the incorrect alternative General versus Specific Rule Learning • In matching to sample task – Choosing the stimulus that is the same as the prior sample • Can be solved in two different ways – General “Same-as” rule: • “Choose the comparison stimulus that is the same as the sample stimulus” • General matching rule predicts strong positive transfer of learning – Specific “If-Then” rule: • “if red sample choose red comparison” • “if green sample choose green comparison” • Even when matching to sample procedure uses six or eight different sample stimuli • “if-then” rule predicts very little positive or negative transfer of learning • Transfer of learning experiments can determine if the general “same-as” rule is being used General versus Specific Rule Learning • Transfer of Learning Test – Train with one set of stimuli then switch to a new set of stimuli for testing • trained with red and green stimuli • tested with blue and yellow stimuli – Use of a general rule depends on species and size of the stimulus set used • Chimpanzees – (Oden, Thompson & Premack, 1988) – general rule learning when trained with only 2 stimuli • Pigeons – (Wright et al., 1988). – “if-then” learning with small set sizes (6 - 8) – General rule with large set sizes (200) or trial-unique stimuli • Trials-unique procedure – – – – the stimuli change on every trial and never repeat use a different stimulus as the sample on each trial can only be solved using a general same-as rule used to study concept learning covered in chapter 12 Using Comparative Cognition to Study Environmental Health Risks to Children • Developmental delays in human infants – Exposure to neurotoxins can impair cognitive function • lead, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) – Genetic effects such as Down’s syndrome • Study the effect of environmental neurotoxins in non-human animals and relate those findings to humans • Need to use similar testing procedures to measure cognitive capacities in developing humans and non-human animals • Some cognitive testing with toddlers and young children – operant battery test, radial arm maze, Morris search apparatus – more difficult to use comparable tests for human infants – most of the procedures have been habituation or simple classical conditioning such as eyeblink conditioning – Examine age-related performance to track developmental changes • Infant cognitive development compared to developmental changes in rats Using Comparative Cognition to Study Environmental Health Risks to Children • Visual Habituation/Novelty Preference Tasks (see Figure 2.6) – Habituation to repeated stimuli followed by a novel stimulus – preference for novelty demonstrates processing of stimulus information – See "Ape Genius" video, • Visual Recognition Memory Tasks – Paired-comparison task • Familiarization with a target then the target is paired with a novel object • Preference for the novel object indicates recognition memory • A-not-B Task requires an aspect of working memory – Based on Piaget’s A-not-B task • a treat (or toy) is hidden for a few seconds – rewarded for reaching correctly • Tolerance to delay improves with age • Mobile/Train Conjugate Reinforcement Tasks – Instrumental: behavior of moving a foot reinforced by movement of a mobile – A similar study examining retrieval cues will be covered in the next topic Using Comparative Cognition to Study Environmental Health Risks to Children • Delayed Nonmatching-to-Sample Tasks – – – – Sample object is presented After a delay the sample object is presented alongside a novel object The correct choice is to select the novel object Assessment of working memory and attention • 21 months old children can handle delays of only 5–10 sec • Similar to infant monkeys 4 months of age – This test may be difficult because of the relationship of the reinforcement on object • When length of the delay is 5-sec • When rewards are attached to the base of the stimuli • Most 9-month-olds pick the novel object