Download LEARNING

LEARNING REVISION SUMMARY
Key Ideas
Knowledge and understanding should be relevant to the following key ideas:
 Our future behaviour is influenced by the events that followed our past behaviour.
 Our future behaviour is also influenced by past and present observations of the behaviour of others.
 Some associations are easier to learn and maintain than others.
Areas of Learning
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Components in classical conditioning (unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and unconditioned and
conditioned responses); components in operant conditioning (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
punishment, schedules of reinforcement, and preparedness); the importance of timing in classical and operant
conditioning (contiguity and contingency); stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and extinction; the
factors that influence learning through observation; the distinction between the acquisition and performance of
a learned response.
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Psychological principles concerning learning in everyday experiences and events (e.g. coin deposit incentives to
return shopping trolleys, customer loyalty programs, classical conditioning in advertising, explicit and implicit
observational learning from television programs) and in psychological interventions, including behaviour
modification and systematic desensitisation of phobias.
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Application of these psychological principles to social issues (e.g. reducing criminal behaviour, increasing
recycling) and personal growth (e.g. overcoming one’s own annoying habits).
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Investigation designs and methods of assessing psychological responses used to study learning.
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Ethical issues associated with research and applications in the area of learning.
Learning
Components in classical conditioning (unconditioned and conditioned
stimuli and unconditioned and conditioned response.
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Definition of learning
o Relatively permanent
o Change
o Can be intentional or unintentional
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Pavlov’s experiment
o Noted that dogs salivated before receiving meat powder
o Led to classical conditioning experiments
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Classical Conditioning
o Simple form of learning – result of repeated association of two stimuli
Before conditioning
Neutral stimulus
(bell)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
(food)
No response
Unconditioned response
(salivation)
During Conditioning
Neutral stimulus
(bell)
+ Unconditioned stimulus
(food)
Unconditioned response
(salivation)
Repeated parings of these two stimuli
After Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus
(bell)
Conditioned response
(salivation)
KEY ELEMENTS
 Conditioned stimulus (CS)
o Neutral at the start
o Would not normally produce the CR
o Does so eventually because of repeated association with the UCS
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Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
o Any stimulus that consistently produces a naturally occurring , involuntary response
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Conditioned response (CR)
o Behaviour identical to UCR, but is caused by the CS after conditioning
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Unconditioned response (UCR)
o A response that occurs automatically when the UCS is presented.
o Reflexive or involuntary response
Components in Operant conditioning including Skinner’s (positive and
negative reinforcement, punishment, schedules of reinforcement and
preparedness.
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Learning process by which the likelihood of a particular behaviour occurring is determined by the
consequences of that behaviour.
Skinner believed the explanation of all behaviour could be explained by the relationship between the
behaviour its antecedents and its consequences.
Operant is a response that occurs in the absence of any stimulus and acts upon the environment in the
same way each time.
Skinner box – hungry rat, initially randomly pressed lever and was rewarded with food. Eventually
replaced with constant lever pressing.
REINFORCEMENT
o Any stimulus that strengthens or increases the likelihood of a response (behaviour) that follows it.
o Reinforcer comes after the response. The reinforcer is the UCS as this always brings the reponse.
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Positive reinforcer
o A stimulus that strengthens a response by providing a pleasant or satisfying consequence
Negative reinforcer
o A stimulus that strengthens a response by the removal, reduction or prevention of an
unpleasant stimulus
o NOTE: Negative reinforcement is one of the least understood terms. Any sort of reinforcement
will strengthen the behaviour.
Schedules of reinforcement
1. Continuous reinforcement – correct response is reinforced every time it is given
2. Partial reinforcement – when only some responses are reinforced
a)Fixed interval schedule – reinforcement delivered after a fixed time (10 seconds)
b)Fixed ratio schedule - reinforcement delivered after fixed number of correct responses
c) Variable interval schedule – reinforcement occurs on an average time interval (4 – 16 seconds)
d)Variable ratio schedule – reinforcement occurs on the basis of an average number of correct
responses (on average after 10 responses, could be 2nd – 18th) – Poker Machine
3. Effects on the learner of each schedule
a) moderate response, more erratic, once it is realized that time is the factor, response rate
drops and then increases as the time for reinforcer approaches
b) predictive, so very effective during acquisition phase (frequency needs to be high), once
acquisition is complete, frequency can be reduced
c) low but stable rate of response, behaviour is extinguished more slowly
d) quickly acquired response and one that is difficult to extinguish. Unpredictability of the
reinforcer seems to lure participants more than a fixed ratio
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Shaping
o A procedure in which a reinforcer is given for any response that successively approximates and
leads to the desired response (method of successive approximations)
o Used widely in animal training for small successive steps
o Skinner used shaping to teach a pigeon to turn a clockwise circle.
PUNISHMENT
o Any stimulus that is unpleasant and which generally decreases the likelihood of the behaviour
recurring.
o Like a reinforcer is is a consequence that needs to be administered immediately after the
undesirable behaviour has been displayed.
o Needs to be given consistently
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Potential punishers – consequences that might lead to a decrease in a given response – may be
difference for different people
Side effects of punishment – frustration and aggression
Comparison of negative reinforcement v punishment
o Negative reinforcement aims to increase the probability of a response occurring
o Punishment aims to decrease the probability of a response occurring
o
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Negative reinforcement occurs when the correct response stops an unpleasant stimulus
Punishment occurs when an unpleasant stimulus follows an inappropriate behaviour
Factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment
1. Appropriate punisher – needs to actually punish, not be pleasant
2. Appropriate punisher for the age / gender of the person being punished
3. Timing – needs to be immediate or as soon as possible after the behaviour
4. Timing - the punishment needs to follow the behaviour not precede it
5. Consistency – the punishment needs to be the same each time it is administered
Factors that influence the effectiveness of reinforcement
1. Appropriate reinforcer – needs to be actually be rewarding and not pointless, or deemed unimportant
2. Appropriate reinforcer for the age / gender of the person - food, drink primary reinforcers v stickers
3. Timing – needs to be immediate or as soon as possible after the behaviour
4. Timing - the reinforcement needs to follow the behaviour not precede it
5. Consistency – the reinforcement needs to be the same each time it is administered
Preparedness
 certain associations are learned more readily than others. Phobias of spiders and snakes are more
common than phobias of automobiles.
 Responses cannot be conditioned with equal ease
o Easier to condition food with poison, not food with light
Stimulus Generalisation, Stimulus Discrimination, Extinction
KEY PROCESSES IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
 Acquisition
o Refers to the phase when the organism s acquiring the response that it will eventually learn.
 Extinction
o When a conditioned response no longer occurs.
o Occurs over a period of time when the UCS is withdrawn and the CS alone continues to be
presented.
 Spontaneous recovery
o After extinction and a rest period, the organism may once again show the CR when the CS is
presented.
o Response is usually weaker and of lesser duration than the original CR
 Stimulus generalisation
o The tendency for another similar stimulus to also produce the conditioned response.
o Generalised stimuli often produce a response weaker in strength than the original
 Stimulus discrimination
Occurs when an organism responds to the CS but NOT to a stimulus similar to the CS.
KEY PROCESSES IN OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Acquisition
o the establishment of the desired response through reinforcement
o schedule of reinforcement is important here
o continuous schedule will mean a faster acquisition phase
 Extinction
o Occurs when the operantly conditioned response disappears over time as reinforcement
ceases.
o Brought about by consistently NOT producing the reinforcer.
 Spontaneous recovery
o Reappearance of an extinguished response after a response period.
o Usually weaker in response and rarely lasts very long
 Stimulus generalization
o Refers to responding to stimuli which approximate the original stimulus
o Skinner showed pigeon may peck at an orange and a yellow light, but not a colour further from
the original orange.
 Stimulus discrimination
o Organisms ability to learn which responses will be reinforced and which won’t.
o When it can reliably perform the behaviours that will be reinforced and not perform those which
won’t, then discrimination is evident
o Skinner able to teach pigeon to peck at green but not red
Importance of timing in classical and operant conditioning
(contiguity and continuity)
CONTIGUITY
The more closely together (contiguous) in space or time two items occur, the more likely will the thought of one
item lead to the thought of the other.
 If too much time elapses between neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus, association - learning
will not occur.
 Classical – ½ second is ideal
 Operant – as soon as possible
CONTINGENCY
Contingency means that one behaviour is dependent on another
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Classical – learning(CR) is dependent on the UCS and CS being preceding the behaviour
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Operant – learning is dependent on the reward or punishment following the behaviour
Comparison of classical and operant conditioning: role of the learner, timing of the
stimulus and response, nature of the response (reflexive / voluntary).
Classical Conditioning
The organism is passive when either the CS or UCS
is presented
Only involuntary responses are involved
Response depends on the reinforcement being
presented
The reinforcer is the UCS and this precedes the
response
A specific stimulus results in a particular response
One stimulus substitutes for another
In humans, emotions such as fear are primarily
involved
One reinforces can elicit only one type of response
Operant Conditioning
The organism must be active to receive the
reinforcement or punishment
May involve both voluntary and involuntary responses
Reinforcement depends on the response being made
The reinforcer follows the desired response
NO specific stimulus produces a particular response
No substitution takes place
Reponses associated with goal-seeking behaviours
are primarily involved
One reinforcer can be used to strengthen a wide
variety of responses.
The factors that influence learning through observation
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Observational learning occurs when someone uses observation of another person’s actions and their
consequences to guide their future actions
Person being observed is called a model – hence term modelling.
More active process than classical or operant conditioning.
Bandura
o His studies show that we learn a great deal of behaviour by observing others and by noting the
consequences of their behaviour.
o Vicarious Conditioning - involves a person observing the consequenes (reinforcement or
punishment) and the modifying their own behaviour according to the consequences
experienced by the model.
Learner plays an active role in the learning process – they must:
 Pay attention in order to observe the modeled behaviour
 Mentally represent and retain what has been observed
 Convert these mental representations into actions (ie reproduce them)
 Be aware that reinforcement influences the learner’s motivation to perform the learned behaviour.
o Reinforcement is the key link between observational learning and conditioning
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Bandura’s experiments
o Modelling and observational learning of children
o Bo-Bo clown doll
 Video shown with 3 alternatives
 Aggressive model rewarded with lollies, soft drink for punching the doll
 Aggressive model was punished by spankings and verbal criticism
 Aggressive model received no consequence at all.
 Children placed in a room with the Bo-Bo doll and observed
 Children who saw positive reinforcement or no consequence imitated aggressive
behaviour more often those who saw the punishment.
 When a reward was offered , even those who saw the punishment tended to imitate the
aggressive behaviour
The distinction between acquisition and performance of a
learned response
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Bandura makes a clear distinction between the acquisition and performance of a learned response.
People can acquire and store many behavioural responses learned by observation.
o Eg listening to music, never having to sing – but learned the words
o Can learn many things without ever needing to perform those things.
o Bandura says when we observe we form cognitive representations (mental pictures)
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Can also learn through observation whether a behaviour will be rewarded or not.
o Can learn not only how to acquire or modify behaviour
o Also what behaviours will lead to particular consequences
Psychological principles concerning learning in everyday
experiences and events (eg coin deposit incentive to return
shopping trolleys, customer loyalty programs, classical
conditioning in advertising, explicit and implicit observational
learning from television programs)
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Classical
Useful for reducing
behaviours – eg smoking,
drinking
Bedwetting (enuresis)
o Common problem
treated by classical
conditioning
principles.
o Loud buzzer as UCS
– wakes sleeping
person when bladder
is full
Advertising
o Pairing products with
UCR’s that elicit
pleasant emotions
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Operant
coin deposit incentives
customer loyalty
programs (subway, pizza
haven, fly buys)
recycling
reducing criminal
behaviour
speed limits
parenting skills
training animals
shaping behaviours
Token economy
Individuals receive tokens
for appropriate behaviour
and tokens can be
collected and exchanged
for more tangible rewards.
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Observational
explicit learning through
the media – anti smoking,
ads teaching specific
facts, healthy eating
implicit learning through
the media – how to
dress, talk, have
relationships, aggression,
violence
Psychological Interventions, including behaviour modification
and systematic desensitization of phobias
Classical Conditioning in practice
 Systematic Desensitisation
o Behaviour therapy that uses classical conditioning principles to get rid of an anxiety or fear
response with a relaxation response.
o Gets patient to associate the feeling of being relaxed with the stimulus that has been causing
the fear or anxiety.
o Over a series of steps from least fearful to most fearful – imagine self moving through steps in a
relaxed manner
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Identify a hierarchy of fears from most feared to least feared (eg being bitten by a bee, touching a bee,
touching a dead bee, seeing a bee in a jar, seeing a bee fly around in the distance). Learn relaxation
strategies such as deep breathing. Begin to pair (either real or in your imagination) the least feared
situation with the relaxation technique and move through the hierarchy in slow steps.
Operant Conditioning in practice
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Behaviour modification
o Uses positive reinforcement and withdrawal of reinforcement in order to eliminate inappropriate
behaviour or teach new responses
o Primary school classrooms, sports fields, family homes
o Identifying the bad behaviour (create a baseline)
o Choosing a realistic goal to work towards (holding trolley in the supermarket)
o Setting up reinforcement with rules for when the child can be rewarded (eg 1 hour study =
reinforcer)
o Writing the contract with the child
o Starting the program and rewarding the small steps – good for 10 minutes, then 30, then whole
shopping trip
o Reduce rewards over time
Ethical issues associated with research and applications in the area
of learning.
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Informed consent, Voluntary participation, Beneficence, Integrity for persons, Confidentiality
Withdrawal, Debriefing, Rights of Participants to not be psychologically harmed, Animal Rights
Unethical research done in the area of learning
John B. Watson’s experimentation with ‘Little Albert’.
 Set out to test whether fear could be acquired through classical conditioning
o White rat – NS
o Loud noise – UCS
o Fear – UCR
o White rat – CS
Fear – CR
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CR was then generalized
o White fluffy objects – dog, sealskin coat
o Less fearful responses – cotton wool balls and Santa Claus mask
Martin Seligman’s research on learned helplessness
Bandura’s BOBO doll research
Ethical uses of animals in research on learning
 If using animals in research the researcher has a responsibility to:
o Ensure the animals have comfortable surroundings
o Company of other animals
o Appropriate diet
o No undue distress or harm
o Use as few animals as possible for the experiment
o If animals life must be terminated, humane release or euthanasia
o Should not change natural or habitual behaviour.
Investigation designs and methods of assessing psychological
responses used to sudy learning.
Research Designs
Experimental
Use of Skinner boxes to study behaviour or rates and mice, or pigeons
Use of mazes to study learning of animals (operant conditioning)
Use of Pavlovian dog harness to study classical conditioning
Bandura’s bobo doll experiment on the effect of observational learning
Quantitative Observational
Observation of children though two way mirrors to watch the interaction of children, or observe the effect of
reward or punishment on children
Observation of trial and error learning – puzzle box
Qualitative
Focus groups and Delphi techniques
Measures
Subjective Quantitative
Rating scales, observations made of children’s behaviours
Objective Quantitative
Numerical data which can be verified – results of a pigeon pecking at a disk
Qualtitative
Focus groups and Delphi technique gathering data about how people feel they learn best, or examples of how
they learned specific skills