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Creation of Roman Empire Geography Central location contributed to the spread of the empire. Italy was a crossroads of the Mediterranean. Tiber River and hills of either side of centralized Rome formed natural barriers to the city. Mild Mediterranean climate gave them a long growing season. Republic of Farmers Romulus and Remus raised by she-wolf legend. Agriculture was the basis of wealth in Rome. First of seven Roman kings was Romulus, the last of which was Tarquinius Superbus. In 507, the senate disposed of Superbus and established the republic. The Roman Republic had assemblies that all men could attend but the votes of wealthier men counted more than poor men. Central power was in the Roman Senate, an advisory council. Senators nominated their sons to fill their positions after they died. The basic unit of Roman society was the family. Oldest living male (paterfamilias) was in authority of the entire family. Individuals and families were tied together with patron/client relationship, sort of like a master/apprentice relationship. Roman women never ceased to be a child in the eyes of the law. The Romans were concerned with maintaining pax deorum (peace of the gods) a covenant between the gods and the Roman state. Expansion in Italy Some people says Rome’s expansion was because of their greed, aggressiveness, and fondness of war. Others say the structure of the Roman state because two consuls had only one year in office to be great. Romans said they were only defending themselves. Rome’s conquest of Italy was sparked by friction between the Apennines. A key to Roman success was their willingness to grant political, legal, and economic privileges of Roman citizenship to those conquered. The reservoir of manpower available to the army had a major role too. Governors were sent to distant Roman regions to defend the province from external and internal forces, oversee tax collection, and decide legal cases. Because each man only had a year, there was little time to get accommodated to the job and create local contacts. This system proved to be inadequate because of dishonesty of man and lack of experience most of them had. Failure of the Republic Two factors driving profound changes: Italian peasant farmers were away from home on military service for long periods, and most of the wealth generated by conquest and control of new provinces was in the upper classes who wanted to buy land. This allowed for small peasant owned farms to be acquired by rich men and turned into large ranches (latifundia). Because farmers were called to the military, the kind of men whose opinions were left were all rich politicians. Sulla, Pompeii, Mark Antony, Ocatvian, Julius commanded armies were loyal to the generals. Octavaian, first among equals, eliminated rivals and refashioned the Roman system of government by altered the realities of power but maintains the republic. The Roman Principate was the time following the Roman Republic. Augustus was a honorific title given to him by other officials. Emperors were never hereditary. Augustus allied with equites, rich Italian merchants and landowners. Urban Empire 80% of 50MIL engaged in agriculture in the countryside. The empire was administered through urban. Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage has several thousand people. Rome had about 1MIL. Largest cities put a huge strain on technological advances. Upper classes lived in townhouses on one of the Seven Hills of Rome. The house was centered on a rectangular courtyard, large dining room, interior dining room, and private bath. Most aristocrats had several countryside homes for retreat. Poor people lived in dumpy, crowded slums. The smaller towns were a replica of Rome in physical layout, and political structure. Each town was autonomous by paying taxes to Rome; in return, Rome left them alone and protected them. The municipal aristocracy provided forum, plaza, gardens, government buildings, theatres, baths, etc for its thousand people. Rural populations had to fend for themselves, and had little contact with Rome except for the tax collector. Land was concentrated into fewer hands; except for during civil wars in which it was reversed. Slaves were replaced by tenant slaves who were turned over a portion of their gatherings to their owners. Wealth was concentrated in the cities but was based in the agricultural stuff in the countryside. Manufacture and trade was established during pax Romana. Fine manufactured products were exported throughout the empire. Luxury items like silk from China and spices from India/Arabia were being imported. Surplus revenues were transferred to Rome to support the emperor and the government and the provinces to pay the soldier. This was made possible by the taxes and networks of trade routes. Romanization: the spread of the Latin language, and the Roman way of life. This was confined to the western because the east had Greek culture. Rome didn’t force people to be Romanized but those who did, had benefits. Men who completed a 26-year terms of service in the native army and then were granted Roman citizenship. Caracalla in 212 CE granted citizenship to “all.” This unified the region and decentralized the power. The Rise of Christianity Judea was put under Roman rule in 6 CE. Technology & Transformation Massive architectural projects were not only for public use but also for political statements. After Augustus’ death Roman armies switched from offensive to defensive strategies. Parthia was their only technological competitor. Third Century Crisis: political, military, and economic problems nearly destroyed the Roman empires. Most visible was the frequent change of rulers; 20+ men claimed to be ruling during this period. Most were overthrown or killed by troops. Regions that felt Rome was not protecting them “elected” a man that had big promises. The cost of paying troops, drained the empire treasury. Municipal aristocracies had to personally make up for what their citizens didn’t pay in taxed. But they were unable to do this because of ineffective trade. Shift of population from cities to rural areas. Shrinking of cities, we see the roots of the European economy and politics. Diocletian was from east, rose through the army and was given power in 284 CE. He implemented solutions like issuing an edict that set prices for goods, made people teach their sons their profession to ensure an adequate supply of workers and services. This government was completely new and had unforeseen consequences like the black market, un-patriotism. He resigned in 305, and many people battled for the thrown. Constantine was able to unite the entire empire by his sole rule. In 312 he won a key battle over the Tiber River. Before this battle he saw a cross on the sun. He converted to Christianity. Christianity became a political advantage. Bosporus turned into Constantinople. Urban centers in the eastern half had better withstood those in the western half. More educated, Christian people were living in the east. Conversion of Constantine and the transfer of the imperial capital away from Rome, marked the end of Roman history.