Download 509 BC Overthrow of Etruscan Kings by Roman Nobles when the

509 BC Overthrow of Etruscan Kings by Roman Nobles when the
king’s son rapes Lucretia, a Roman noblewoman. Lucreita
commits suicide and is idealized as a model of faithfulness, purity, and
courage.
“Imperium” ultimate power, the right to command
Two executives- “consuls” elected to one year terms. Can be tried for
offenses during tenure after leaving office.
After 366 BC “praetors” are created to administer justice, command
armies, or rule in absence of consuls. Eventually they are sent to govern
provinces. Retired praetors and consuls (“propraetors” and
“proconsuls”) also fulfill this role.
“Dictators” can be given imperium for six months maximum in
emergencies.
“Quaestors” help administer finances
“Aediles” supervise public games and the city’s grain supply.
“Censors” chosen every five years to survey the population.
Roman Senate
300 members who serve for life. These are nobles or “patricians.”
Advises officials. Eventually its decisions acquire the force of law.
Concilium Plebis (assembly of the people)
A council of the “plebians,” or average citizens. It passes laws and
elects “tribunes” to defend their interests. Originally the tribunes are
“sacrosanct.”
Concilium Centuriata (the assembly of centurions)
The army meeting to exercise its political functions.
Patrician class eventually includes two divisions- the “nobiles,” and the
“equites” (knights) who are essentially rich merchants and farmers
descended from or associated with cavalry officers.
493- 264 BC Rome conquers the Italian peninsula.
264- 133 BC Rome conquers the Medditerranean: Spain, Greece,
Macedonia, Asia Minor, Carthage.
During the 200s and 100s BC these wars necessitated an increase in
terms of military service from 2 to 6 years.
Rome has historically conscripted only those men whose families have a
financial stake in the success of the empire. The core of the army is
thought of, stereotypically, as being sons of small farmers.
Over time rich aristocrats have bought state land and created
“latifundias” which are large farms run by slave and tenant labor. This
has the effect of squeezing out the small farmers, thus limiting the
available pool of military conscripts.
133 election of Tiberius Gracchus (of the “nobiles”) to tribuneship.
He passes a land reform law in the concilium plebis which limits amount
of state-owned land held by an individual and redistributes land that
must now be sold off to the poor. When he runs for re-election,
Gracchus is assassinated by a group of Senators.
Gaius Gracchus, brother of Tiberius, elected tribune in 123 and 122 BC.
He continues land reform and replaces Senators who sit on special
courts to try provincial governors with members of the equites. He
opens Asia Minor to equestrian tax collectors. Gaius passes a grain law
allowing sale at below market value. He tries, but fails to pass a law
giving Roman citizenship to Rome’s Latin allies. The Senate declares
martial law in 121 BC and in street-fighting that ensues, Gracchus and
many of his supporters are killed.
In 107 BC a war in North Africa has been dragging on for some years.
Marius, an equestrian officer and “novus homo,” who had argued with
his commanding general, runs for consul on the slogan, “win the war.”
He is elected and voted to command of the North African armies by the
concilium plebis in an extra-legal act (only the Senate has had power to
elect commanders and oversee and prosecute military campaigns).
104-100 BC Marius re-elected consul each year. He wins wars in North
Africa and in Gaul. He introduces army reforms- recruiting from the
urban and rural plebians who own no property. Makes the soldiers
swear an oath of allegiance to their commander rather than the Senate.
Promises gifts of land to recruits upon retirement, using his political
connections to achieve state land grants.
90-88 BC “The Italian War” fought between Rome and its peninsular
allies. Ends with Romans granting full citizenship to all free Italians.
88 BC consul Lucius Cornelius Sulla (of the “nobiles”) is given
command of armies by the Senate with the purpose of subduing
Mithradates, rebellious King of Pontus, in Asia Minor. The Concilium
Plebis transfers this command to Marius. Sulla marches on Rome with
the army in order to reassert his right to imperium.
When Sulla leaves for Asia Minor, Marius joins with Cinna the consul
to march on Rome and take power. Marius dies, leaving Cinna in
control. Sulla defeats Mithradates and returns to Italy, seizing Rome in
82 BC. Sulla forces the Senate to declare him dictator to “reconstitute
the Republic.”
Sulla proscribes and executes his political enemies, reduces the powers
of the tribunes and the Concilium Plebis, restores Senators to the jury
courts, and enlarges the Senate with members of the equites class. In 79
BC, Sulla surrenders imperium, believing he has saved the Republic
and restored a strong Senate.
77 BC Pompey is given military command in Spain. He returns heroic
and triumphant in 71 BC.
73 BC Senate gives Crassus (former officer of Sulla) command of the
army that puts down the slave rebellion led by Spartacus.
70 BC Pompey and Crassus elected consuls. They restore powers of the
tribunes and return the equites to the jury courts. The tribunes vote
military command to Pompey, to clear the Medditerranean of pirates
and then go East to attack Mithradates (who remains problematic for
Rome). Pompey returns and surrenders imperium, assuming his
veterans will be rewarded with gifts of land.
63 BC Cicero is consul. He is an equestrian “novus homo” and a strong
orator. He believes that to remain strong, the Senate needs the
protection of a powerful general and in 62 BC he allies himself with
Pompey and proposes legislation granting land to Pompey’s veterans
and authorizing Pompey to reorganize the administration of the Eastern
Provinces. A group of Senators blocks Cicero’s legislation.
Julius Caesar, nephew of Marius, serves as aedile and praetor, then
commands an army in Spain. Returns to Rome in 60 BC and requests a
triumph and to stand for consul. The Senate denies him. Caesar joins
forces with Crassus and Pompey (this is the “first triumvirate”). Caesar
elected consul in 59 BC. He uses the concilium plebis to grant Pompey’s
requests and to enrich Crassus’ equestrian allies. Caesar is granted
imperium over the military in Gaul for the next five years.
Crassus and Pompey elected consuls in 55 BC. Caesar receives five
additional years in Gaul. Crassus goes to command troops in Syria.
Pompey returns to military command in Spain.
53 BC Crassus is killed in battle. The Senate, seizing the opportunity to
take back power, eventually demand that both Pompey and Caesar lay
down their commands, both both refuse. The Senate chooses sides and
allies itself with Pompey, again voting for Caesar to surrender his
imperium and return to Rome as a civilian. He refuses.
10 January, 49 BC Caesar crosses the Rubicon river, crossing into Italy
at the head of his armies, beginning a civil war. 48 BC Caesar wins the
battle of Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt, where he is murdered by
one of the king’s officials. The war continues between the armies of
Caesar and troops under control of various republican Senators.
47 BC Caesar is made “dictator” of Roman Republic.
Caesar wins battles in Spain and North Africa and returns victorius to
Rome in 45 BC. In 44 BC Caesar is proclaimed dictator for life. He
holds elections, which he fixes, and fills the Senate with his followers,
enlarging the enrollment to 900 Senators. Caesar grants citizenship to
many of his foreign supporters and has colonies established in Gaul, in
Spain, and in North Africa. He moves to reorganize the administrative
structures of the Italian cities and reforms the calendar, introducing the
365-day Egyptian solar year. Caesar pardons many of the republican
Senators and allows them to return to Rome. In 44 BC Caesar is
assassinated by a group of Senatorial conspirators.