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THE TASHKENT MEDICAL ACADEMY
CHAIR OF PUBLIC SCIENCES № 1
Lecture №3 in a subject
"Philosophy"
Theme: Philosophy of Ancient
Greece and Rome
The lecturer: the candidate of philosophical sciences,
Senior teacher Atamuratova F.S.
Tashkent 2013
Theme 3: The Philosophy of Ancient Greece Rome.
The plan:
1. Main periods of ancient philosophy.
2. Philosophy of ancient Greece.
3. Philosophy of ancient Rome.
1. Ancient philosophy that emerged in the late VII-VI century. O.E. in Asia Minor
of the then Hellas - Ionia, meant the emergence of philosophy as a discipline.
Ancient philosophy, we are called doctrine arose in ancient Greece and ancient
Rome. Her pre-walked the mythology of ancient Greece, which found its
expression mainly in the epics of Homer "Iliad" and "Odyssey" and Hesiod (VIVII centuries O.E.).
In the history of ancient philosophy, there are three main stages. The first are the
Milesian school, Heraclitus, and the Eleatic school (philosophy of period VI-V
centuries O.E.). The second phase (V-IV centuries O.E.) Development of Greek
philosophy is associated with the names of of thinkers Socrates, Plato, Aristotle,
the school atomists (Leucippus, Democritus), the Sophists (Protagoras, Gorgias).
By the third, this Hellenistic philosophy - are three main trends: skepticism,
Epicureanism and Stoicism (IV-III centuries O.E.).
2. Ancient Greek philosophy arose not in mainland Greece, and the Ionian cities of
the western coast of Asia Minor, founded by the Greeks. The most developed
industrial and commercial center were those cities that were at the crossroads of
trade children. In one of the largest cities of Miletus in the late VII-VI centuries.
O.E. and there were first philosophies. The first ancient Greek philosopher and the
founder of the Milesian school was Thales (from 624-547 years. O.E.). He is
considered the founder of European science and philosophy. Together with
Anaximander and Anaksimenom on which he had a great influence, Thales has
developed philosophical belief system.
For thinkers Milesian school is characterized by such features in common:
- At the heart of all things is "primordial", it by no one and to create there forever;
- The main feature "primal" is a movement;
- The world has resulted from the movement of matter;
- There is only matter in motion, therefore, all varies;
- Every thing is the "unity of opposites."
Thales of Miletus (from 625-547 O.E.) - the ancestor of European science and
philosophy, in addition, a mathematician, astronomer and politician, was highly
respected citizens, Thales was of Phoenician noble kind. He traveled a lot, and
tried to apply their knowledge in practice. He is the author of many technical
improvements implemented measurement monuments, pyramids, temples in
Egypt.
Thales made literally a revolution in the outlook, putting forward the idea of
substance, the fundamental principle of all, to summarize all the variety in one
nature and seeing the beginning of all the moisture: because it permeates
everything. Aristotle said that Thales was the first attempt to find a physical start
without the help of myths. Moisture and actually omnipresent element, everything
is out of the water and the water is drawn. Water as a natural beginning, is the
bearer of all the changes and transformations. This is indeed a brilliant idea of
conservation. Although the idea of Thales firstcontently seems naive to us now, but
from a historical point of view it is very important: in the "all out of the water" was
given "resignation" Olympic, i.e. pagan gods, ultimately mythological thinking,
and went on to a natural explanation of the nature. What else is the genius of the
father of European philosophy? He first got the idea of the unity of the Universe.
This idea, once born, will never die: it communicated to his disciples and the
disciples of his disciples. Thales, as his successor, was on the point of view of
Hylozoism (from the Greek. Hyle-substance, zoe-life) - beliefs on which life - an
intrinsic property of matter that exists in itself moving, and at the same time and
animation. Thales believed that the soul is diffused in all things. Thales saw the
soul as something spontaneously active. According to Plutarch, Thales universal
intelligence called God: God is the mind of the world.
Thales successor Anaximander (from 610-540 O.E.), the first to lift up the original
idea of infinity of worlds. For primal things he took Apeiron - indefinite and
unlimited substance: it changes frequently, as a whole remains unchanged. This is
characterized as the beginning of an infinite divine creative-motor force: it is not
available to sense perception, but understandable reason. Since this is the
beginning of forever, it is inexhaustible in their educational opportunities specific
realities. All that exists, as it were scattered as tiny lobules. As small particles of
gold bullion form, particles of the land to its specific arrays.
The third representative Milesian school Anaximenes (from 585 - 525 O.E.). He
believed that the original is the only air, thought it as infinite and saw him ease
variability spine and turn things. According to Anaksimen, all things emerged from
the air and its variants are generated by its concentration and discharge. In order to
adequately assess these as it seems now, "naive" idea Milesians, we recall that the
great Kant, in his history of the period claimed that the planets and all the heavenly
bodies are composed and derived from the infinity of the gaseous mass. So
Milesians make a breakthrough with their views, which clearly posed the question:
"What does it?" Answers are different, but they laid the foundation for his own
philosophical approach to the subject of the origin of things: the idea of substance,
that is, to the foundation, and the essence of all things and phenomena the
Universe.
Eleatic school (V from O.E.). One of the schools of thought of this time - Elea (on
behalf of the city Elea in southern Italy). She is represented by philosophers:
Parmenides, Xenophanes, and Zeno.
Considered the founder of the Eleatic school of Xenophanes (570 - 478 years.
O.E.). For the first time in the history of philosophy, he suggested that all the gods
- the fruit of the human imagination that people invented gods in their own image,
attributing them to their physical and moral traits WIDE disadvantages. Gods of
antiquity he opposed one god, that is one with nature. Here's his view of the world:
"All that is All whole ¬ Retained, is the one "," one God "," god of spherical and
not like a man, "" it is the mind, thinking and eternity "," may all be one and the
same, and it is God, never born, eternal forms. " People are not created by the
gods, and were born out of the ground and water.
Disciple of Xenophanes - Parmenides (540-480 years. O.E.) - held that there is still
only being and non-being does not exist. All this and there is a God, he is
motionless, is finite and has a ball. In addition, the sage is believed that there are
two philosophies: one is true, and the other - opinion. The criterion of truth is the
mind. Feelings do not give accurate information, they are misleading. To know the
truth, you know feeling. Thus, Parmenides explain the universe as one that exists,
without beginning and spherical, fixed. This, according to him, the truth.
Impetus to its further development of the Eleatic school win by Zeno (490-430
years. O.E.), the favorite disciple of Parmenides, who tried to prove the unity and
stillness of being. Zeno's argument is this: "Moving [subject] does not move either
in the place where he was, nor where it is not."
Aristotle gives four judgments Zeno's motion - the so-called paradoxes (from the
Greek. Well - denial and poros - road, bridge). Aporia - an insoluble problem,
predefined contradiction between observation and attempt their interpretation in
terms. As an example, the first proposition: a flying arrow is at rest (as it is at every
moment, that rests in a place). "The flying boom is stationary," for "me time ¬
consists of separate" now. "
Around the same time created Heraclitus (544-483 years. O.E.) of Ephesus, also
had a great impact on the further development of philosophy. Like the Milesians,
Heraclitus believed that everything came from some first principles. This, in his
view, is fire. He is the most agile, able to change, is not only the cycle of things,
but the basic principle of the formation of the universe, the basis of all cosmic
processes.
Widely known position of Heraclitus: "The world is one of all, do not create ¬
given by any of the gods of the people and no one, and has been, is and will
forever live fire, naturally flammable, naturally dying." He owns the famous
words: "Everything flows", "In the same river can not step twice," "Nothing in the
world still as cold warmer, warm turns cold, wet dry, dry hydrated."
Thus, the naive materialism combined with Heraclitus-natural dialectic. He
claimed that "everything flows, everything changes", there is nothing fixed.
Changes in the nature of Heraclitus considered shaft as a result of the struggle of
opposites, thought that antioppositely interconnected relativepassed and into each
other.
Heraclitus taught that the world is one of all, is not created by any of the gods, and
none of the people, was, is and will forever live fire, naturally flammable and
natural dying. Fire way of perpetual motion. Fire as the visible form of the
combustion process is the most appropriate definition for the element, defined as a
substance, which is characterized by that it is the eternal process of "burning" the
dynamics of things. But this does not mean that Heraclitus in place of air and water
set the fire. The case is much thinner. True Heraclitus Space - this is always
blazing fire, but it is a living fire. It is identical deity.
Heraclitus recognized knowability of the world, believed that cognition of the
outside world is through the senses and thinking.
Atomism. Apex of ancient materialism are the views of representatives of the socalled atomistic direction, which was presented to Leucippus (500-440 years. O.E.)
and Democritus (460-330 years. O.E.). Leucippus first proposed the theory of
"atoms" and "emptiness." His students and researchers was Democritus.
Democritus shared being and nothingness, emptiness. Before him, such a
separation of not. Being broken into particles of emptiness. They are compact
(being without nothingness), i.e. atoms (indivisible). They differ among themselves
form, movement, size (and weight). Sensual susceptibility Niemann quality (color,
smell, etc.) are subjective. Everything in the world with consists of atoms and their
movement, the movement is the nature of atoms. The soul, according to
Democritus, too, is made of atoms - cool, smooth, tiny and mobile, that is, from the
fire. They are located in the body. Feeling arises cabins on the motion of the atoms
(perception - from the end of bodily formation call). Thinking - from the most
delicate issue, is it thinner than feelings.
Natural-philosophical views of Democritus influenced the formation of a
philosophy of Hippocrates (460-337 years. O.E.) - the most famous representative
of ancient Greek medicine. All who have studied the works of Hippocrates, see its
historical significance in the next two important merits: first, that he has begun
proper governmental method of medicine - "surveillance at the bedside," and,
secondly, the fact he is the author of the theory of basic groin physique and
temperament of the people, who gave thus the key to understanding the physiology
and pathology, and, therefore, to his healing.
Based on the ideas of Democritus that the basis of all things are atoms with their
eternal motion and his theory of the nature of human , Hippocrates identified and
described the main types of people depending on their temperament and physique.
They are, according to Hippocrates, tire: 1) sanguine (blood in the body
predominates), 2) choleric (in the body prevails yellow bile), and 3) phlegmatic
(phlegm in the body predominates), 4) melancholic (in the body dominated by
black bile ).
Thus, Hippocrates introduced to medicine theory of the formation of the person,
the environment, the material origin of psy-archical warehouse people, the unity of
human nature.
For many years it was thought that the medicine of Hippocrates identified
philosophy. More correctly, perhaps, to say that he put to the philosophy service
medicine synthesized philosophical and medical - sanitary presentation.
Hippocrates is the father of clinical medicine. He viewed the body as a complex
system of organs. Established the dependence between the state of the organism
and the environment, and so thing is that the outcome of treatment is directly
related to the protection forces of the body ("Nature heals, and the doctor is
watching"). Great merit of Hippocrates in the study of moral principles of healing,
as demonstrated by the immortal "Hippocratic Oath."
Hippocrates overcame the mystic, religious, anti-scientific perception of the world
and thus opened the way for the further development of medicine as a science and
as an art.
"... Our credit him equally obliged Medicine and Philosophy: delineating the area
of both, he at the same time removed from the two different views of à priori and
too bold hypotheses. Medicine he established as a separate and distinct from all
other sciences, which has its own method, which is a rational combination of
experience with index induction, ie in the precise observation and understanding of
the facts a method of is known at the present time under the name of the pilot ...
Using this method, medical art Hippocrates built on the degree of science in this,
indeed, is a great, passed them in medicine revolution ... "(Kovner SG History IU
medicine, 1878).
The Pythagorean school was founded by Pythagoras (b. 580 - 570 years. O.E.). He
first called the philosophy of that name, but the beginning of her thought and the
prisoners therein proportionality (harmony). Numbers, Pythagoras taught, enter
into the secret of things, and universal harmony is the perfect expression of God. In
the school of Pythagoras life had to help cleanse the body and soul, which is
achieved by proper swarm hygiene and strict discipline NRA Islands. This school
has alternated gymnastics and medicine, music and science. Pythagoras called his
disciples to "mathematics", because Training begins with the study of numbers.
Sacred Mathematics was his science principles that is the essence of things.
Number of Pythagoras - not an abstract quantity, but a significant and active as the
supreme unity, ie, God, the source of world harmony. Science of numbers was a
science of living forces, divine qualities in action, and in the worlds (the
macrocosm) and The Rights (microcosm).
Sophists and sophistry: Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus. In the 5th century. O.E. in
many cities in Greece to replace the old political power of the aristocracy came to
power and tyranny slave-owning democracy.
Sophist first called person was committed to mental activity or skilled in what _ or
wisdom, including scholarships.
Sophists were many, but we will focus on the three most characteristic effect of
this trend - Protagoras, Gorgias, Prodicus. Each of them has a unique personality,
but on the whole they shared similar views.
Sophists - the teachers of wisdom - were not only political and legal technology
activities, and at the same time taught and the philosophy. It is important to
emphasize that the sophists have focused on social issues, on the person and on the
problems of communication, teaching public speaking and political activities, as
well as specific scientific and philosophical knowledge. Some sophists taught the
techniques and forms of belief and evidence, regardless of the question of truth.
Make a point, and even resorted to absurd passages of thought.
In their quest for credibility, sophists reached the idea that it is possible, and often
need to prove anything, and also to refute anything, depending on the interest and
the circumstances that led to indifference to the truth of the proofs and refutations.
Thus arose the ways of thinking, which became known as sophistry.
Most fully expressed are the views of the Sophists Protagoras. He owns a famous
proposition that "man is the measure of all things: the existing, that they exist and
do not exist, they do not exist." He says about the relativity of all knowledge,
proving that every statement can be contrasted with an equal basis contrary to his
assertion. Dialectics as a kind of philosophical thinking for the first time in vivid
form in Heraclitus, then at eliatov, the Gorgias, it has rather negative character
only as a means of proof or disproof, and with the deprived systematic.
In his work "On Nature" Gorgias shows three positions: that nothing exists, and if
anything, then it is not knowable, it is ineffable and inexplicable. As a result, he
came to the conclusion that nothing can be said reliably.
Prodikos show exceptional interest in the language, the denominative function of
words, to the problems of semantics and synonyms, ie identification match the
meaning of words, the correct use of words. He pays great attention to the rules of
the dispute, approaching the problem analysis techniques refutation, which was of
great value to the discussions.
It should be noted that the Sophists were the first teachers and researchers of art
expression. It was with them begins philosophical linguistics.
Socrates. Period preceding of Socrates called natural philosophy. Socrates (469399 years. O.E.) was the ancestor of the second period of ancient philosophy
(orientation philosophy on knowledge).
Sources for its study are the works of Plato and Aristotle, as Socrates himself wrote
nothing. To understand its philosophy views are important dialogues of Plato,
such as the "Feast", "Phaedo", "Apology of Socrates."
The main place in Socratic philosophy belongs to the doctrine of knowledge and
ethics. Socrates believed that the right knowledge to be determined with the help of
two methods: 1) the method of allocation of the total number of special cases, and
2) to identify signs, lost in the overall analysis.
Socrates himself called his method of teaching maieutics - "povishing art." He
explained it this way: just as the midwife helps women in childbirth, and he did not
tell his disciples, no knowledge, but helping them make clear the thoughts that
"pregnant" their heads. Socrates believed that the use knowledge is innate in man
acquired his soul, when it is not embodied in the body. This true knowledge is
stored in the soul in the form of memories of the true being, which is awakened in
man are in the hard work of thought.
Speaking about the ethics of Socrates, it should be noted that the moral
commitment, following the views of the ancient sage, already exist in every human
being and to turn into a virtue necessary to recall them. Virtue is knowledge, and
that knowledge of the good. Vice is only from a lack of knowledge from error.
Socrates was convinced that people are naturally good, and his teachings can be
called but ethical intellectualism as He considered the understanding of knowledge
of good and intellectual element, the most important part of morality.
Activity of Socrates was the basis for the formation of a number of ethical schools
of ancient Greece. The most significant of these were the hedonic and cynical.
Plato (427-347. O.E.) was a famous teacher of philosophy at Athens, where he
founded his own school, called the Academy (owner of land, which was bought by
Plato's name was, in the opinion of some scholars of antiquity, the Academy).
School represented a university at the time, who had college students, professors,
and after the death of Plato chooses from its midst the rector, who ran for life and
was a philosopher.
In the philosophical system of Plato is quite clearly you can see all four of the
philosophical knowledge of the time: ontology, cosmology, epistemology, and
ethics.
One of the important provisions of the Platonic ontology is in fact time-division
into two worlds: the world of ideas and the world of sensible things. Primary, "the
truth is," Plato called the world of the eternal, unchanging, self-existing entities ideas. Secondary, derived from them, he called all the manifold varieties perceived
world. Ideas in terms of Plato, can be considered as objective things, aspire to
some Mehta. Plato's ideas are a kind of hierarchy, which is completed by a
supreme idea, which is very good, the very beauty and perfection.
With the doctrine of being in the system of Plato closely associated cosmology, in
which he developed the theory of the creation of the first deity of the Cosmos
Chaos. Plato calls the creator of the world divine the organizer of the world, which
all led out of the mess in the order dock inspired mind the soul of the Cosmos, and
the spirit to the body. In addition to the world-soul, Plato acknowledged the
existence of stars, human souls, souls Ms BOTH and plants.
Plato's theory of knowledge is based on his theory of the soul. Plato believed that
man, as corporeal beings, mortal. The soul of his disorder mortal. When a person
dies, his soul does not die, but only exempt from the body and begins to cover
Independent Travel . During the trip, it is in contact with the world of ideas and
contemplating them. Therefore, the essence of knowledge, according to Plato, is
recalling the soul of the ideas that she was once contemplating. True knowledge
gives only thinking, and thinking - this is not dependent sensory perceptions
autonomous process with remembrance. That is, the learning process is defined by
Plato as a dialectic, the art to ask questions and to answer them, evoking memories.
The task of philosophy is to rule on spiritual life to the absolute value, that is, the
transcendent ideal existence. Wisdom, according to Plato, concludes in
understanding the enduring transcendental of ideas.
Ontology, cosmology and epistemology of Plato, in fact, are subordinate, acting as
the methodological and ideological base for the main part of his philosophical
system we ethics.
Plato believed that the condition of moral acts is true knowledge. It has a soul of
true knowledge, which consists of three parts: 1) a reasonable and 2) a strongwilled, and 3) sensual. Well part of the soul - the basis of virtue, wisdom, strongwilled - good courage, and sensual - the virtue of moderation. Harmonious
combination of these three parts of the soul, according to Plato, under the guidance
of reason and gives rise to the virtue of justice. Plato these oriented self identity, to
create a better society-state. He puts the beginning of the public over the personal,
so the ethics of Plato organically combined with the concept of the state.
According to the three parts of the soul, Plato divides people into three types:
carriers virtues of wisdom - philosophers , which should govern the country,
courage - a virtue in custody, whose task is to protect the state, prudence
(conscientious fulfillment of their functions) - a virtue of the third estate. Justice
also is a kind of virtue national.
The study of the philosophy of Plato suggests that in his teaching for the first time
the question of the relation of being and thinking, material sense of the essential
and ideal-world. Claiming priority ideas over sensuously perceptible things, Plato
thus started the line of idealistic philosophy, which in antiquity was further
developed at Aristotel and most clearly represented in medieval philosophy.
Speaking of the influence of Plato's philosophical views on the development of the
Medicine in ancient Greece, it should be noted that they are the basis of all the
idealistic medical systems to the XIX century, including considerably.
"... Plato ... plays in the historical fate of copper particularly important. This
ancient teaching is completed, WHO increased, ideal-vitalistic doctrine that way
life is in constant interaction of body and spirit, which manages and is matter for
their own purposes ... "- so writes the historian of medicine are known C. G.
Kovner.
Plato's Academy lasted much longer than any philosophy schools - more than eight
centuries. Completes the objectivist-velocity ontological tradition Aristotle, one of
the most talented first students of Plato.
Aristotle (384-322. O.E.) was the son of a doctor (Nicomachus) luchil in medical
education. Several years as an educator and teacher of Alexander the Great. In 336
O.E. discovered in a grove Lyceum his philosophical school called peripatetical
(walking philosophers).
Aristotle for the first time has drawn a distinction sciences by providing each of the
these special areas of research, and established the difference between the
theoretical (metaphysics, physics, mathematics), practical (ethics, economics,
politics) and creative (poetics, rhetoric) sciences . A special merit of Aristotle is to
develop tests Lemma logic, theory of categories (identify and analyze ten
categories).
In metaphysics is dominated by the classification of causes. Aristotle distinguishes
four types of causes: 1) material - substrate from which things are made, and 2)
formal - they form manifests itself, forming the essence, and 3) current - source
movement and rotation possibilities into reality, and 4) the target ( final) reason answers the question "Why" and "Why?" metaphysical Coy Aristotle called his
philosophy (or "first philosophy"), which was a first, the doctrine of the higher, ie
the most common causes or principles, and, second, the theoretical science that
studies do not work, and being. Metaphysics by Aristotle , studies being in general,
and the "second philosophy" (physics, mathematics) - only certain aspects of life.
Logic also has methodological significance for knowledge. It helps to separate the
general from the particular, the truth from the false. Aristotle called induction
method of total elimination of private and deduction ¬ s - method of proof of
syllogisms. Aristotle gave a special meaning to reason, he considered it a major
advantage of human ne ¬ ed the rest of the world. Reason is the ability to think in
common, it is caused ¬ lovlivaet human action and shapes his freedom. The will of
the assumptions ¬ proposes person's willingness to moral choice based on
knowledge of the total. Only man is able to perceive such concepts ¬ ty, both good
and evil, justice and injustice. ¬ nym central concept of Aristotelian ethics is a
virtue. A common theme, sounding in the ethical precepts of Aristotle, is the desire
to find a "middle line of conduct."
Aristotle concludes the classical period in the development of Greek philosophy. In
the Hellenistic period (IV from. O.E.-V century AD.) Changes in E
rovozzrencheskaya orientation of philosophy, its interest in more concendotochivaetsya the lives of individuals.
3. Hellenism, which covers the period from the conquest of Alexander the Great
and the fall of the Western Roman Empire describes a follow ancient philosophy.
Retaining much of the ancient classics, Hellenism, in fact, completed it. Basic
principles laid down by great Greeks were systematized, divorced some aspect of
the achievements of the earlier period, concentration of attention on the problem of
man and society. Philosophy focused on the subjective world of man.
In the philosophy of Hellenism, when society was subjected to all kinds of social
upheaval, there is the peculiarity of schools and trends. During this period, more
than philosophy, as they say, is not a torch, leading the seekers of truth: it is, rather,
an ambulance, following in the footsteps of the struggle for existence and picks up
the weak and the wounded. There seemed to be nothing reasonable in the device of
human affairs. Those who stubbornly went looking for somewhere reasonable to
yourself and decide how Satan in Milton's:
Mind - a special world. And he himself, in,
Able to turn a paradise into hell and make heaven from hell.
About the time of Alexander the Great was founded four schools of thought:
Cynics, skeptics, the Stoics and Epicureans.
The most prominent representatives of the Cynic school - student of Socrates
Antisthenes (from. 450 - c. 360 O.E.) and Diogenes (400-ca. 325 O.E.).
Antisthenes preached simplification of life, making no demands. He mingled with
the common people, considered a refined philosophy worthless. He urged that in
order to be closer to nature. By Antisthenes, there should be no government, no
private property, no marriage. His followers sharply debated slavery. Not being a
complete ascetic Antisthenes despised luxury and the pursuit of pleasure.
Antisthenes fame surpassed by his pupil Diogenes. Very symbolic story of how
Diogenes day the fire looking for an honest man. He chased virtue, believed that
moral freedom is to free from desire. He claimed that the gods had done right, so to
punish Prometheus legendary: he brought to mankind art that created confusion
and artificiality of human existence. The world is bad, so you have to learn to live
independently.
For the sage most importantly - humility. The views of Diogenes could and can
attract people's attention, tired of life adversities that have frustrated kill natural
activity of the spirit. Stray and serene Cynic, preached the rule of nature and
reason, one essence of all existence and nothingness of all artificial divisions and
historical boundaries, advocating the concept of cosmopolitanism. Man by nature,
therefore, every man, they taught, has a higher dignity and purpose, which consists
in the freedom from external attachment, delusion and passions - in the steadfast
courage of spirit.
Another early Hellenistic philosophical movements is skepticism. This occurred
during the previous developed based on the ideas of thinkers constant turnover of
all the events of existence, contradictions between sense impressions and thinking
about the principle of the relativity of all phenomena.
Considered the founder of skepticism Perron (360-270 O.E.), in his view strongly
influenced by Democritus. It may be part of Perron in the Asian campaign of
Alexander the Great and familiarity with Indian ascetics and sectarian fostered
such ethic above all ideas serenity. Perron did not write essays, and expounded his
views orally.
Now philosophers interested in the question of how to live in this world, in order to
avoid endangering the disaster on all sides. Sage should be called a man who
knows and can help you understand how to learn to live: sage - a kind master, but
not in scientific knowledge, this craftsman in life. APRONS, philosopher - is the
one who pursue happiness, and it is of equanimity and in the absence of suffering.
Perron principle: "To follow the principle of refraining from any kind of judgment
was about something!" Perron skepticism - it is not a complete agnosticism:
absolutely reliable for us our sensory perception, when we see them only as a
phenomenon. If something seems sweet or bitter, it should be expressed as follows:
"It seems to me bitter or sweet." Abstinence from categorical judgments about the
true nature of things, creates a feeling of calmness and serenity. That this is the
highest level available philosopher true happiness.
Epicureanism are outstanding representatives of Epicurus and Lucretius Carus.
This philosophical attitude direction to the turn of the old and new era. Epicureans
were interested in the dispensation of the comfort of the individual in a complex
historical context of the time.
Epicurus developed the idea of atomism. According to Epicurus in the universe,
there are only bodies in space. They are directly perceived by the senses, and the
presence of empty space between the bodies from the fact that otherwise would be
impossible movement. Epicurus proposed the idea, very different from the
interpretation of the atoms of Democritus. This idea of the "rejection" of the atoms,
the atoms move in a "bound flow." According to Democritus, the world is formed
as a result of mutual "strike" and "bounce" of atoms. But just the severity of the
atoms with the concept of Epicurus and does not explain the independence of each
atom in this case, by Lucretius, atoms would fall like rain, the empty abyss. If you
follow the Democritus, total domination in the world of atoms needed by being
consistently extended to the atoms of the soul, making it impossible assumption of
free will of man. Epicurus decides so, he gives the atoms can spontaneously
deviation, which are to be treated by an act of the inner man. It turns out that atoms
inherent "free will", which defines an "indispensable deviation." Therefore, the
atoms are able to describe the different curves begin to touch and hurt each other,
twist and untwist, causing a world. This idea made it possible to avoid the idea of
Epicurus fatalism.
According to Epicurus, life and death are equally not afraid to the sage: "As long
as we exist, there is no death, and when death is, we are no more." Life is the most
pleasure. such as it is, the beginning and the end. The soul was thought of Epicurus
as the principle of the integrity of the individual elements of the spiritual world of
the individual: feelings, sensations, thoughts, will, as a principle of the eternal and
bezuscherbnogo existence. The basic principle of Epicurean ethics is fun - the
principle of hedonism. At the same time preached Epicureans fun feature
extremely noble, peaceful, tranquil and contemplative piece. The desire for
pleasure is a basic principle of choice or avoidance. According to Epicurus, if a
man take away feelings, then there is nothing left.
Lucretius Carus, a Roman poet, philosopher and educator, one of the greatest
epicures. He does not deny the existence of gods, consisting of the finest atoms
residing mezhdumirovyh spaces in blissful peace. It is curious that the atoms of
Lucretius - not something that Epicurus they - not the limit of divisibility, but a
kind of creativity, of which the particular item structure to it, ie atoms - the stuff of
nature, involving some outside being creative principle.
Stoicism as the specific direction of philosophical thought has existed since
the third century O.E. till the third century. Stoicism is least "Greek" of all
philosophical schools. Early Stoics, in the majority Syrians Zenon Kitionsky from
Cyprus, Kleanf, Xrisipp. To late of Stoics concern Plutarx, Sitseron, Mark Avrely
is basically Romans. Stoics in the views put in the forefront concept quiet and
always counterbalanced, even an "insensible" wise man. In it the ideal of internal
freedom from passions which cherished almost all Stoics was shown.
According to Chrýsippos (aro. 280-208 O.E.) there is a world soul. It is the
cleanest aether the most mobile and easy womanly-gentle, as though the most thin
kind of a matter.
The representative of late stoicism Mark Avrely (121-180) has been
convinced, that the God gives everyone the special good genius in heads. For it the
Universe - closely connected whole, this uniform, live being possessing a uniform
substance and uniform soul.
Characterising various properties of soul, stoics special attention gave to a
will phenomenon; the doctrine has been constructed on a strong-willed principle,
on self-control, patience and other. They aspired to full self-pressure. Stoics started
with a principle of general expediency. All has the sense: even bugs are useful, as
they help to wake up in the mornings and do not allow to lay too long in bed.
Freedom for the well-known thinker, the writer and politician Seneca is a
deity which dominates over all things and events. Nothing can change it. From
here humility, endurance and proof transferring of struggles of life. The stoical
wise man does not resist to harm, he understands it and with firmness arrives in its
semantic fluidity, therefore it is unperturbable and quiet.
Early stoics in the ideas of life followed antique tradition. They recognised
that a world body is formed of fire, air, the earth and water. The soul of the world
is fiery and air pneuma. All life was thought as different degree of pressure is
divine-material firstlight. According to the doctrine of ctoics about fiery elements
of essence of the world this fire turns to all other elements under law Logos.
Logos the world at stoics it is identified with Destiny. Under their statement,
the destiny is Logos Space: it orders all in the world. Zhenon said, that the Destiny
is the power moving a matter. It defined the god as ardent reason of the world: the
god fills with itself all world, it the Supreme chapter operating all real.
By the nature, learnt stoics, all human beings are equal. Mark Avrely in the
work «Alone with itself» praises of polity, operated on the basis of the equal rights
and an equal freedom of speech, imperial board which respects more freedom of
the operated.
At stoics we find numerous and is thin the developed logic and grammatical
researches: grammar sources - at school stoics. From their point of view, actually
philosophical beginning to root in the human subject. But it was not actually
subjectivity. Stoics used the term «lecton». It designates that subject which we
mean when we use its designation. Lecton when we use it at a designation or the
subject name, there can be both true, and false, i.e. it above both trues, and lie.
Stoical lecton is only the cogitative design connected with a word, but existence
does not possess causally-metaphysical. Lecton is a pure sense.
In summary we will notice the following. Philosophers usually possess
known width of mind and basically are capable not to reckon with misfortunes in
the private life; but even they cannot rise above the highest good or harm of time.
During bad times they think out consolations, and in good - their interests are faster
purely intellectual. Ethics stoics corresponded Mark Avrelija's to time: she called
more likely for patience, than to hope.
Néoplatonisme - a direction of an ancient philosophy late Hellenism (3-4
century of century), systematising Platon's basic ideas taking into account
Aristotle's ideas. Personal specificity neoplatonisme is the doctrine about
preservation of internal rest of the person and its protection against a various sort
of shocks, characteristic for the given period of history of the Roman empire and
connected with it senescence and disintegration. A philosophical core
neoplatonisme is dialectics working out platonic triads uniform - mind - soul and
its finishing to space scale. So, Aristotle's doctrine about «mind - firstengine» and
in its consciousness in which force it acted simultaneously both the subject, and
object developed, comprising own «an intellectual matter».
The school founder neoplatonisme - Plotinus (aru. 205. 270). According to
the Plotinus, the central outstanding figure of all neoplatonisme - the soul, not is a
body, but the soul is carried out in a body and the body is a limit of its existence.
Mind too not is a body. But without mind there would be at all no organised body.
The matter to be as in the mind as mind is always a certain sort the organisation,
and any organisation demands for itself a material without which there would be be
nothing to organise because all organisation would lose sense. Therefore it is not
surprising, that except a sensual matter exists, on the Plotinus also « astounding a
matter», and mind too is a known sort a body, namely a semantic body. Plotinus
developed idea of action of "world soul» on all space.
Neoplatonist remained at a stage of the orfiko-Pythagorean doctrine about
resettlement and transformation of souls. They a lot of attention gave workings out
of logic problems _ definition of concepts and to classifications, and also
philological researches.
The most original part of system of view the Dam is the doctrine about the
first image - Uniform as the transcendental beginning, which above all other
categories. Its such idea is connected with it, as an ascension of soul from a sensual
status to supersensual - to ecstasy also.
Any thing beheld as those, is distinct from all another: it - "one", antithetic to
all to other, and Uniform is indiscernible and unseparably copresence to all real
and all conceivable. Uniform not to be split up in any way, existing everywhere
and in all. Thus «from there is nothing light streams». Light the basic image of
philosophy a Dam, corresponding to its concepts: «Uniform - light absolutely pure
and simple (force of light); mind - the sun having own light; soul - the moon
borrowing light from the sun; a matter - a gloom".
The soul also is not shattered into parts, representing something uniform and
not a dividend; it is a special, semantic substance. She cannot be thought as a
certain plurality of mental statuses. Any individual soul cannot exist independently
from all other souls: all individual souls equitant «world soul».
Ideas the Plotinus have been developed Proklo (aro. 410-485) which
considered, that the higher type of knowledge is possible only thanks to divine
inspiration; the love, to Proklo, contacts divine beauty, the true opens divine
wisdom, and the belief connects to clemency of gods. Historical value of doctrine
of Proklo, is not so much in mythology interpretation, how much in the thin logic
analysis directly not connected with any mythology and representing a huge
material for studying of history of dialectics.
The ancient philosophy was the present public force of a classical antiquity,
and then and world-wide and historical development of philosophical culture and
each new generation, receiving higher education, urged to plunge into this eternally
fresh stream young, for the first time itself the identified philosophical thought.
The ancient philosophy calls a keen interest each inquisitive person who is excited
with philosophical questions. Many problems over which antique philosophers
reflected, have not lost the urgency and until now.
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2. The anthology of world philosophy. Т. 1.4. 1. - М, 1969. With. 295-296.
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1978.
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