Download Introduction to Philosophy

Introduction to
Philosophy
Senior Religion Honors
Aquinas High School
Basic Terms, Definitions, and Concepts
Deduction – Big to Little
Start with a general statement and
deduce all the implications that can
be derived from that statement.
Induction – Little to Big
Start with any number of specific
statements and formulate a general
statement from them.
Logic – A process of reasoning that requires a
step-wise, sequential, organized
presentation of information.
(The opposite is intuitive reasoning)
Opinion - The assertion of a point based on the
subjective observation of an individual.
Can be completely right or totally
wrong, but the main thing is that
Opinion is a reflection of an
individual’s point of view. Opinions
tell you something about the individual.
Fact - A piece of information that is true for
all people, at all times, and in all places.
Facts do not depend on an individual’s
point of view, preferences, likes, dislikes,
etc. They also do not reveal higher level
issues such as: context
meaning
import (significance)
Truth – That which ‘is’. i.e. whatever exists.
Wisdom:
the combination of life
experience and facts which
have been
digested/tested/retested.
Subjective - There is a connection between the
knower and the object known. The
object is an object FOR the knower.
Objective – There is no necessary connection
between the knower and the object
known. The object exists or is known
apart from the knowing subject.
A priori - Whatever is known before (prior to)
experiencing it.
A posteriori - Knowing after experience.
(posterior = behind, after)
Abstract - Not concrete or specific.
Cause-Effect Thinking - Connecting data to
whatever produced it.
Experience – The collection of raw data.
Understanding - The interpretation of raw
data.
Judgment – The valuation of interpreted data.
Decision – Acting on the valuation of data.
Dialectic – Conversation. In Hegel, the
conversation between historical
movements.
Intrinsic – Inherent. Belonging to something by
nature.
Extrinsic – Not part and parcel of something i.e.
color of a horse.
Paradox – Apparently contradictory, but
actually not.
Areas of Study in Philosophy
Ontology: the study of being and its
causes.
Epistemology: the study of knowing.
Logic: the study of the organization
of reasoning.
Language analysis: the study of language for the
purpose of making it more precise.
Aesthetics: the study of beauty and its meaning.
Politics: the study of human interrelationships.
Ethics: the study of right behavior.
Anthropology: the study of human nature.
Cosmology: the study of the origins of the
universe and man’s place in it.
Metaphysics: the study of the higher things i.e
those things beyond physics (the material world).
Methodology: the study of how to do something.
Focus on means rather than ends.
Philosophyical Schools of Thought –
Relativism: Epistemological error. Truth varies
From person to person, place to place, time to
time. (Protagoras)
Skepticism: Epistemological error. Truth is
unknowable. (Gorgias)
Reductionism: Simplification of reality.
(Thrasymachus)
Cynicism: Self-interest is the prime motivator of
human behavior.
Realism: philosophy that teaches that reality
can be known. (Plato, Aristotle, etc.)
Idealism: philosophy that teaches that reality is
unknowable. One can only know ones
impressions (ideas) of reality. (Hegel)
Platonism: the philosophical school of Plato.
Reality is knowable, but exists elsewhere.
Aristotelianism: the philosophical school of
Aristotle. Reality is knowable and here.
Scholasticism: medieval philosophical school
that emphacizes the unity of faith and reason.
Borrows heavily from Plato and Aristotle.
Neo-Platonism: a reworking of Plato’s ideas
about 600 years after his death. Influences and is
influenced by Christianity.
Nominalism: The doctrine holding that abstract
concepts, general terms, or universals have no
independent existence but exist only as names.
Determinism: the ethical philosophical school
that says that human beings have no real
freedom, but all their actions are beyond their
control. (Genes, programming, societal factors,
etc.)
Rationalism: the philosophical school that
teaches reason is the only means to determine
the truth…..not experience, revelation, etc.
Existentialism: A philosophy that emphasizes the
uniqueness and isolation of the individual in a
hostile or indifferent universe, regards human
existence as unexplainable, and stresses
freedom of choice and responsibility for the
consequences of one's acts.
Phenomenology: A philosophy or method of
inquiry based on the premise that reality
consists of objects and events as they are
perceived or understood in human
consciousness. Avoids generic fallacy.
Mysticism: The philosophical/theological school
that emphasizes direct experience of God as the
surest route to complete knowledge. Opposed to
Rationalism.
Empiricism: The view that experience, especially
of the senses, is the only source of knowledge.
Scientific method employs this .
Positivism: A doctrine contending that sense
perceptions are the only admissible basis of
human knowledge and precise thought.
Utilitarianism: The ethical theory proposed
that all action should be directed toward
achieving the greatest happiness for the
greatest number of people.
Pragmatism: A movement distinguished by the
doctrine that the meaning of an idea or a
proposition lies in its observable practical
consequences. Does it work? What is the
cash-value of an idea?
Materialism: the philosophical school that
asserts that all reality is composed of matter.
There is no spiritual reality.
Nihilism: A doctrine holding that all values are
baseless and that nothing can be known or
communicated.
Chauvinism: the position of assumed
superiority based on sex, time, place, belief
system. Avoids reasonable discussion.
Terms dealing with the methodology of
discourse –
Implication: You imply (make an implication
about) something when your verbal and nonverbal communication leads the listener to a
conclusion. Looks, sarcasm, tone of voice, etc.
all contribute to this.
Inference: Any conclusion the listener draws
from listening or watching the speaker.
Feelings:
the subjective emotional state of
an individual. Always there, sometimes
objectively accurate, and always tells you
something about the individual. (A word
that is used sloppily and tyrannically). Note:
Feelings don’t always reveal or reflect the
truth in whole or part).
Reasoning Errors:
Circular Reasoning – Tight, but inaccurate
thinking that proves its conclusion by assuming
its starting points are correct.
Example: Grass is green
Why?
Because it is green.
“Proof” by selected instances
Example: Fred has never heard his
parents disagree. He thinks that
married couples never disagree.