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Islam
MI 396
Dr. Robert Patton
The Life of Muhammad
The Sira, a Political Biography
Dr. Robert Patton
Missionary to Suriname,
South America
Beginning of Muhammad’s life
• Father – Abdullah, meaning slave of Allah
• Allah – moon god, of the Quraysh, the ruling
clan of Mecca.
Early life
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Abdullah died while his wife was pregnant
His mother died when he was 5 years old
His grandfather raised him, but died
Finally, his uncle Abu Talib raised him
All from the Quraysh clan
Tradition
• His mother claimed that light from her womb
lighted Syrian palaces
• Abbysinian Christians wanted to have the
infant, and claimed he would be great
• Young Muhammad was bonded with a
Christian monk Bahira, who invoked the
goddesses al-Lat and al-Uzza, but Muhammad
would have none of it.
Tradition
• Bahira told Abu Talib to guard him; the Jews
will be jealous of him
• Another saw a mole and fainted. He said that
the prophethood had left the Jews and he will
kill their scholars
• There is no historical record to support these
contentions about a tradition of an Arabian
prophet
Beginnings
• No nation in Arabia – everyone was in a clan,
and blood ties were important
• Your value came from your tribe
• Quraysh were leaders in Mecca for 5
generations, and also the priestly group
• Mecca small – ¼ mile x 1/8 mile
The ka’aba
• Building with many idols; tradition said that
Abraham built it
• There was a well called Zam Zam; drink from it
• Throw stones at pillars – at the devil
• Ritual prayers, circling the Ka’aba while
praying all preceded Islam
• Black stone was key – probably a meteorite
Early life
• Supposedly conception, birth, pregnancy and
early life were miraculous
• Supposedly Jews and Christians as well as
others knew Muhammad was coming
• Raised by Abu Talib age 8. Taken to Syria, very
sophisticated with writing (Arabic only for
business), many Christians there
Marriage
• Hired by distant cousin, a wealthy widow
called Khadija, as her trading agent. He was
known for good character and business sense
• Supposedly a slave boy going with him saw 2
angels shielding Muhammad and told Khadija,
who saw that he had doubled her fortune.
Marriage
• She proposed to him. She was 40; he was 25.
They had 6 children; two sons died in
childhood, and 4 daughters grew up.
• Khadija had a Christian cousin, Waraqa, a
convert from Judaism, who believed that a
prophet would arise from this people. The
Qur’an said that the Jews rejected the
prophecied messiah.
Ka’aba rebuilt
• They decided to place a roof to prevent theft
• They were afraid to demolish the walls, but
one man did without problem. A Greek ship
had run aground nearby and they used the
timber for the roof.
• The black stone was installed by the clan
members lifting up a cloth with the stone
inside
Monotheism
• The Jews were strong monotheists – and of
course killed Jesus for shirk – claiming to be
one with God
• Christians were unorthodox – believed in a
trinity of God, Jesus, and Mary
• People of the book – the Scriptures, as
Arabians were polytheists with oral traditions
Monotheism in Mecca
• Very few Christians in Mecca
• Zayd was a precursor, a monotheist fusing
their religion with tribal gods, praying to the
Ka’aba, and taught on heaven and hell
Muhammad’s visions
• Muhammad would have month long retreats, and
circle the Kaaba in prayer
• About 40, he was confronted with a vision and
commanded to read, and then to recite while in
the cave Hira. He complained that he could not
read. The angel pressed on him 3 times. He was
going to kill himself, but Gabriel revealed himself
and called him a prophet of God
Muhammad called a prophet
• When he told Khadija, as he was afraid of
being crazy or a poet, she told her Christian
cousin, who met him, and pronounced that he
was a prophet.
• Waraqa warned Muhammad that his people
would reject him, probably after Waraqa’s
death
• Khadija became the first convert
One mark described
• One tradition states that Khadijah asked
Muhammad to look and he saw the angel
when sitting on her left thigh, right thigh, and
lap – but no more when she removed her veil
• Some Muslims contend that even angels
cannot look on an unveiled woman – too
sinful
Repeated distress
• Muhammad became suicidal on several
occasions when the angel did not reappear for
some time.
• Many were skeptical of the source of his
revelations
Sources of inspiration
• There are many references to the prophets.
At first, Muhammad respected the Jews and
sought their approval
• Some of the Biblical materials came from the
Talmud – such as the killing of Abel is that of a
whole people, and God saving Abraham from
being burned when they threw him into a fire
for burning their gods
Muhammad & others
• Muhammad becomes furious at those who
reject him. The Qur’an is in Arabic, and not in
Hebrew or Persian from another source.
• Muhammad can ask the people of the Book if
his prophecies are true.
• Tradition states that a man questioning his
authority could not be buried – the ground
rejected his dead body repeatedly
Other sources for the Qur’an
• There was a Arabic Infancy Gospel that taught
that Jesus spoke from the cradle, and made
clay animals and gave them life. The parents
told the children not to play with Jesus,
because he was a wizard.
• The Qur’an refers to this: 5:110
Gnostic views
• Gnostics believe that the physical matter is
evil, and that Jesus did not have a physical
body and could not have been crucified.
• Muslims are not worried about this, as the
Qur’an was supposed to correct earlier errors,
so influence would be expected.
Zoroastrian contribution
• Much of the descriptions of heaven, including
the houris (virgins), and the delights of the
food, drink, and weather are similar
Convenience?
• Zaynab, initially wife of Zayd, his son who
wanted to divorce, eventually did. Allah
himself showed Muhammad that he could
marry Zaynab – apparently seen when thinly
clad, a beautiful woman
Aisha’s situation
• Aisha was in a veiled howdah. Unknown to
others, she went to find a necklace which she
lost, and was left. A man found her and
returned her but rumors was that he had slept
with her. These went on for a month
• Eventually Muhammad showed that Allah
stated that there were not 4 witnesses and
thus she was innocent
Results of Aisha’s innocence
• Woman’s testimony is not counted except ½
for a man in property. Aisha’s testimony did
not count
• Rape – 4 men must testify that it occurred. If
the rapist denies, the woman may end up
being executed for fornication
First prayers
• He learned that he should prostrate himself
four times when at home, twice travelling
• Gabriel showed him about ritual cleansing
• Abu Talib fell on hard times, and Muhammad
took Ali to raise; he became the second
convert after Khadijah
• He was followed by Abu Bakr
Private preaching
• Worship only Allah and not al-Lat and al-’Uzza
• Opposed by his uncle Abu Lahab – who either
Muhammad or Allah said was doomed
• The tribe asked for a miracle, or for Gabriel to
speak to them
• Once some interrupted their prayers, and one
hit a polytheist with a camel jawbone, drawing
blood
Public preaching
• After 3 years, he preached to about 40
publically, but they were mocked by the
Quraysh tribe. This became much more
severe when he preached against idols.
• A fight came during prayers, and one of the
clan injured an Islam man. The tribe offered
Abu Talib to give him a man in exchange for
killing Muhammad.
Preaching at the fair
• The Quraysh tried to warn others that he was
a sorcerer, especially at a yearly fair; this only
made others curious, and a number of men
from Medina were attracted to his preaching
• Medina had many Jews, and were used to
hearing about monotheism
Fight with Quraysh
• More opposition – about 12 converts, and
some from another tribe
• Muhammad suggested going to Ethiopia or
Medina
• Allah gives permission for defensive war. They
will then establish a poor tax and Islamic law
New support
• Muhammad was fine to have a religion, but
they wanted tolerance and threatened him.
• Hamza, the strongest man in Mecca,
supported Muhammad
• One offered him money or power, but he
refused, and recited the Qur’an
Many arguments
• There were many arguments then and the
Meccans demanded a sign or miracle from
Muhammad, who said that Allah sent him as a
messenger, not a miracle-worker. They found a
story-teller who went to Medina
• Men from Medina were giving 3 questions for
Muhammad to answer. His answers, given in
places in the Qur’an, were also followed by many
others
Abu Bakr saves Bilal
• Some of the Quraysh tried to make a slave
renounce Islam, but he refused and they
tortured him. Eventually Abu Bakr freed him
by offering a strong black slave in his place; he
did the same with 6 other Muslim slaves
Muslims go to Ethiopia
• A number of Muslims left for Ethiopia
• One man actually shifted to Islam
Umar
• A very strong man, originally hassled
Muhammad and everyone feared him
• His brother-in-law and sister had converted
• He read some of the Qur’an and was
impressed and converted to Islam
Boycott
• For 2-3 years, the Quraysh boycotted the
Muslims – no selling food or intermarriage
• Several strong verses in the Qur’an came
against the opponents.
• They ridiculed and offered to switch worship
to see which worship was the best.
Satanic verses
• A
• Muhammad decided just to hold three of the
gods of the Quraysh tribe along with Allah. The
tribe was happy and everyone worshipped
together with Muhammad leading. But his
conscience bothered him, and Muhammad
realized that this was an attack from Satan. This
is spoken in the Qur’an as a deceit from Satan,
and Muhammad retracted; his relationship with
his tribe deteriorated further
Satanic verses
• Gabriel showed Muhammad that he was
wrong, and Muhammad realized that the
suggestion was from Satan. No more worshiip
of al-Lat, al-’Uzza and Manat, the “daughters
of Allah.” Allah showed that there was no way
that the Muslims would have sons and he onl
daughters. He nullified Satan’s attempt
Satanic verses
• Many Muslims deny this ever happened
• However, the Qur’an does mention one
occasion when both believers and unbelievers
prayed together
Muhammad and a slave
• Muhammad showed interest in a Christian
slave. His tribe ridiculed him and said that this
was the source of his inspiration
The Night Journey
• Muhamv med was awakened 3 times at night
by Gabriel; the third time he was placed on a
beast – Burraq, between adonkey, and a mule
with wings, and brought to Jerusalem.
• He was taken to the first heaven, and greeted
by Adam. Later he went to other levels, and
met others, including Moses and Abraham
The Night Journey
• He describes them. He was to choose
between drinking a bowl of milk and wine,
and chose milk, the correct choice.
• He was told to have Muslims pray 50 times a
day but Moses said it was too much. It was
gradually reduced to 5, the Muhammad
refused to ask for more reduction
• He was ridiculed by his tribe
The night journey
• This is outlined considerable detail in the Sira
from Ishaq. He describes many who were
tortured to go to hell, the fire of hell, and how
the angels greeted Muhammad with a smile.
He also saw a beautiful woman there, who
was the wife of his adopted son Zaid
Two difficult deaths
• Abu Talib, who had raised him and protected
him, died; he did not accept Islam though
Muhammad asked him to do so
• Khadija, who was a great support
• Muhammad sought help from 3 brothers in
the town of Taif, but they rejected him
• A visiting tribe came to the fair, but wanted to
be boss of Muhammad if he protected him
Medina comes to the fair
• Tension between rich Jews who were getting
weaker, and Arabs in Medina
• The Jews predicted that a prophet would
come and lead them to victory
• One Arab tribe the Khazraj, decided to join
Muhammad before the Jews – he was
probably the predicted prophet, and made the
oath (first) at Aqaba
Medina blood oath
• The first visit and oath was not a blood oath
• A year later, they did make a blood oath to
protect Muhammad to the death – second
oath at Aqaba. – about 70 men
• When they went back to Medina, the city was
split. The Muslims continued; the rest with
their animism. The Muslims descrated some
of their animism totem items.
Tensions increased
• Thus far there had been insults between
Muhammad and his tribe. They had thrown
dust on him. One threw shoes at the other,
and the Muslim kept the shoes as a token of
war
• The Medinans returned; the Quraysh were not
looking for a war
An attempt to kill Muhammad
• The Muslims left Mecca except Muhammad,
Abu Bakr, and Ali
• The tribe decided that every clan would work
together to kill Muhammad together. Story
stated that Muhammad had Ali sleep in his
bed, confronted a group, they were blinded
and he threw dust on their heads and
departed
Leaving for Medina
• Muhammad and Abu Bakr left for Medina; Ali
stayed behind to finish up business. They hid
for three days and then made a 10 day trip
• Two groups in Medina – natives and Quraysh.
The former were termed Helpers. They set up
a pact with treatment of Muslims different
from that of Kafirs. Jews would be fine if they
supported the Muslims
Prayer in Medina
• When an Arab leader died, Muhammad took
his position. They set rules in order.
• Jews called together with a horn; Christians
used a bell
• Muslims decided to have a chant from a high
place
Muhammad marries Aisha
• Muhammad in mid-50s married Aisha age 9;
she was the only virgin he married. She
brought her dolls with her to the harem
Increasing tension in Medina
• There were many “hypocrites,” those who
pretended to be Jews or Muslims but were
secretly in opposition, though they feared for
their lives
• Rabbis asked difficult questions and
Muhammad became angry
Tensions increase in Medina
• 5 different tribes there – 3 Jewish, 2 Arab. They
had fought with each other. Now the Arabs and
Jews were at odds
• Muhammad claimed that the Jews had changed
scriptures to hide the fact that he was prophesied
to be coming. He felt that the Jews who denied
that he was a prophet had changed things but
were too proud to admit it (Remember that
Muhammad is illiterate and cannot read
scriptures.
He vilifies the Jews
• The Qur’an now states that Jews will be
turned into apes, and Christians into swine
(5:59). They accused the Jews of doing the
same thing with Moses and resisting him. The
Qur’an states that the Jews were accused by
Moses of changing the Torah.
Muhammad claims to be the true Jew
• When the Jews and Christians state that
Muhammad must convert or go to hell, he
stated that they were deliberate deceivers and
Allah will make them burn in hell. He was the
true Jew and follower of Abraham, who was
neither Jew nor Christian but a true Muslim
Muhammad changed the kiblah
• The kiblah is the direction of prayer. At first,
Muhammad prayed toward Jerusalem
• But now he prayed toward the Ka’aba
Christians in Medina
• Supposedly when Christians came, they knew
that Muhammad was prophesied, but the bishop
refused Islam because he would lose money and
prestige.
• They claimed that because Jesus did not change
kings or night to day, he was just a prophet and
not God. Allah gave him the power to speak from
the cradle and make clay birds fly to show that he
was a prophet, but not God
Muhammad and Christians
• Allah denies the trinity, and any Kafir who
claims the trinity will be burned in hell
• Jesus is only a messenger, not God
• Allah is a better plotter than those who
wanted to kill Jesus; he made a double who
was crucified and took Jesus to heaven: 4:156
Jihad
• 13 years after first preaching
• Medina – 3 groups
– Muslims
– Jews
– Arabs with traditional religion
– A few Christians were also apart
Beginning with raid on Najar
• Killing became acceptable
• Muslims were to stick together, never look to
an unbeliever for support, and never to fight
against a believer for an unbeliever
• Women and children of unbelievers were fair
game
First raids
• There were seven raids made over the first 2
years or so, without contact – mostly seeking the
Quraysh
• First group killed during the sacred month in a
sacred area. Muhammad originally did not take
the spoils, but then wrote that idolatry and
resisting Islam is worse than killing. Before that,
one killing paid for another, but no longer
Jihad starts
• Muhammad took 20% of the spoils. They held
other men for ransom
• Allah revealed that the sin of rejecting Islam was
worse than attacking during the sacred month.
• Umar wanted to kill the captives, and
Muhammad later felt that killing was better than
ransom
Badr
• Abu Sufyan with 70 men went on a caravan
• Muhammad got an army of 300 to attack –
those from both Mecca and Medina
• Abu Sufyan discovered the plot and moved
the caravan from Badr.
• Muhammad plugged the wells between them
and the Quraysh army
Badr
• Hamza killed the first man
• The battle was fierce, with many dying. This is
the first time that persons killed their own
family – in the cause of Allah. The first martyr
was guaranteed paradise.
• The Muslims were victorious, killed enemies,
captured some for ransom, and a lot of booty
Qur’an war chest
• To resists Muhammad is a death sentence
from Allah
• Don’t turn your back except tactical maneuver
against any Kaffir
• The awe of Muhammad is the fear of Allah
• The strength of the fighting is in piety, not in
numbers
No more taking captives
• They would no longer take captives for
ransom, but kill all Kafirs – Saed’s request
• The spoils of war would finance Islam
• Islam melded universal command, and a fused
religious and political machine together
• Started with 150 poor Muslims, picked up
another 100-150, but now is a powerful army
Banu Qaynuqa jews
• Muhammad besieged the tribe, and
eventually they surrendered. An Arab ally
begged for safety for them
• Muhammad took all the goods and wealth
and drove them out of Medina
Al Ashraf the Jew assassinated
• Al Ashraf wrote poetry criticizing Islam
• A Muslim offered to kill him. He was allowed
by Muhammad to lie to deceive him.
• The muslim pretended to befriend him, but
then set a trap and killed him.
• Note expediency – lying is OK to help
Muhammad
The battle of Uhud
• The Meccans returned for revenge. The
Muslims did not stay in an encampment
where they had an advantage
• At first they won, but the archers left their
post to get booty, and the cavalry attacked
from the rear and won for Mecca
The lesson of Uhud
• The Muslims expected to win, and were
defeated.
• Muhammad told them that their defeat was
because they failed to hold themselves as
good Muslims, and failed to obey him
explicitly. But Allah loved them enough not to
totally destroy them. They should not focus on
booty, but on victory for Allah
After Uhud
• There were two situations where there was
deceit and betrayal. On the second occasion,
Muhammad lost 69 of his best fighters.
• On another occasion, he sent Abdullah to
assassinate the leader of a coalition against
him. The assassin succeeded and was
rewarded for his deed.
Jewish tribe #2 from Medina
• Another tribe made a plan to kill Muhammad
but he found out and besieged them. He
burned many of their date palms.
• They offered to leave without fighting, just
taking what their camels would carry
• All the spoil went to Muhammad since there
was no jihad
Muhammad & wives
• There were a couple raids but no bloodshed
• Muhammad takes wives 4 & 5, widows of those
killed
• He was smitten by his beautiful daughter-in-law,
the wife of his adopted son Zaid. He divorced her
and after a revelation from Allah that it was OK,
Muhammad married her. Allah said that an
adopted son is not a real son; name him after his
father.
Muhammad’s wives
• Muhammad saw the danger of seeing another
man’s wife, and imposed a veil on all his
wives. No man would see them – just the
woman’s relatives
• His own wives were mothers of all and not to
remarry after his death
Jewish tribe #3
• Went to Quraysh to join in fighting
Muhamamed. They asked the Jews whose
religion was better – Muhammad or the
Quraysh. The Jews answered the Quraysh.
• Muhammad was advised to dig a ditch to
protect against the invasion
The battle of the trench
• The battle never really took place.
Muhammad was able to find someone to sow
discord between the Arab Meccans and
Jewish allies, and they disbursed
• Later two of his men tried to kill Abu Safyan,
and did not succeed, but killed three and
captured one
The last Jews of Medina
• Muhammad saw a vision of Gabriel, who
ordered fighting the Jews
• He put them to a siege 25 days, and then they
surrendered.
• He beheaded 800 Jews, took their wives and
children and all property, sold some wives for
sex slaves, and took one Jewish woman as his
own wife after killing her husband and family
Arabs kill Abu Rafi
• One Arab tribe ingratiated themselves by
offering to kill the Jew who organized the fight
at the battle of the trench, Abu Rafi
• Five men went and succeeded
Continued battles
• There were several other battles, and he
conquered the Mustaliq tribe. There was also
squabbling between the Immigrants and the
helpers. Muhammad married one wife of the
captured tribe – wife #7
Aisha left behind inadvertently
• She was found by a young warrior and
returned to Medina
• Many talked about a relationship between the
two
• Allah showed that there must be 4 witnesses
for adultery to occur – thus none occurred
Treaty of Al Hudaybiya
• After a lot of debating, the Meccans signed a
treaty with Muhammad, who viewed the
treaty as a victory for Islam.
• Ultimately, treaty was for 10 years – and any
treaty is only for 10 years, and only to allow
the Muslims a chance to regroup and fight
more effectively
Dhimmis
• They prepared to attack Khaybar. Their king
Marhab fought Amir, who killed himself. Ali
fought and killed Marhab
• The Muslims captured a fort at a time; he took
captive Safiyah, a beautiful Jew and freed her as a
marriage present.
• 1800 men divided the spoil; Muhammad got
20%. At nearby Fadat, they surrenderd without a
fight and Muhammad received everything
Dhimmi
• Muhammad allowed Jews to live, but received
50% of their profits and humiliated them
• They refused to pay some blood money to
Muhammad. He later asked that no Jews or
Christians be allowed in Arabia on his
deathbed. Muslims still try to do this today
Loss at Muta
• They attacked Muta, but found a large number
of professional Christian warriors there, who
destroyed them.
Defeating Mecca
• Abu Sufyan, a chief opponent, came to see
Muhammad’s army of 10,000. He was almost
killed, but offered a chance to submit to Islam
or die. He submitted, and told those who
stayed home or in the Ka’aba that they would
not be killed. Only 13 Meccans resisted, and
Muhammad became ruler. He took his 10th
wife.
Mecca made holy
• Muhammad made Mecca a holy city, without
bloodshed except at the order of Muhammad.
• He entered the Ka’aba and broke the idols
there after riding 7 times around it and
touching the black stone 7 times.
• One lady submitted to Islam and was forgiven
by touching his hand
Khalid
• Khalid deceived men promising not to kill
them. When they surrendered, he bound and
killed them; a woman was also killed
• Muhammad asked forgiveness of Allah, and
paid blood money
l
Battle of Hunain
• There was intense fighting and the Muslims
drew back. Muhammad and Abu Bakr rallied
the troops and turned the tide of battle.
• Kab, a poet against Muhammad, became a
Muslim and was not killed
l
Battle of Hunain
• There was big trouble when Mary, a Coptic
slave, gave Muhammad a son, and when one
wife was away, he brought her into his harem
instead of visiting her apart. The other wives
rebelled, Muhammad stayed away from them
for a month, and then there was something
about this episode against the wives in the
Qur’an. Abraham died at 16 months of age
Battle of Tabuk
• The trip was long in the heat of the summer.
A number grumbled and dropped out
• After arrival, they agreed to the poll tax so
there was no battle
• Khalid killed a Christian brother of the ruler
and captured the ruler for ransom
• Returning, he shunned 3 men for 50 days,
then forgave them
Thaqif submits
• The first man from there submitted, but was
killed on his return and announcement. But
later the rest of the people submitted
• The Qur’an now states that jihad is the normal
state of affairs. But leave some behind so that
the proper teaching is given
Abu Bakr leads a pilgrimage
• The treaty was only good for 4 sacred months;
then jihad with compulsion to convert
• No Kafirs could come to Mecca. The loss of
income would come from jihad and the poll
tax. Those who resisted to fight were
hypocrites
• Now several tribes submitted. Muhammad
sent out people to collect the zakat.
Last pilgrimage
• Final address: no usury; no blood revenge
from before Islam; use the lunar calendar
• Men had rights over a woman; they were not
to commit adultery or act sexually toward
others.
• Christians and Jews are dhimmi and must pay
jizya and accept humiliation
Muhammad and world leaders
• Muhammad sent notes to several world
leaders – one in Rome and Ethiopia said that
he was a true prophet expected by Christians
• The Persian king ripped the paper in pieces
Summary of fighting
• Over 9 years
– Muhammad participated in 27 raids
– There were 38 other expeditions and battles
– There were also assassinations and executions
• Average – one battle / 7 weeks over 9 years
• After this = still more raids and killings listed
in the Sunna, wives traded, etc.
Muhammad dies
• He became sick and weak suddenly, and died
within a short time in the room of Aisha. He
was buried beneath his bed
• One of his last words was – only one religion
must be in Arabia
The character of Muhammad
• He was generous and open to all friends but
when he became a prophet, he was gentle
with Muslims and brutal with those who were
not.
• He participated in all levels of slavery and
approved of it, including sex with slaves
Who would follow?
• They felt that there should be just one leader,
not one for helpers and one for immigrants
• He must be from the Quraysh, the tribe
superior to all others in the world
• Abu Bakr was chosen. Many wanted to leave
Islam, but he killed all who wanted to leave as
apostates. He was successful for 4 years, against Iraq
Umar, chosen to follow by Abu Bakr
• Conquered Egypt, Syria and Persia
• Set up documents for dhimmi status
• He stopped dividing the spoils of war and
arranged state payment & a standing army
• Giant of a man, beat his own son to death for
drunkenness. Feared, not loved. Assassinated
by a slave – former Persian general
Uthman
• Chosen by 6 men picked by Umar
• Unpopular as he consolidated the government
and there was less booty and income
• He had assembled the Qur’an
• He was assassinated by Muslims and his body
dumped and partially eaten by dogs
Ali
• There was resistance from Muslims. He killed
some. Discontent from Aisha; when he won, she
was placed under house arrest. When Aisha had
been accused of infidelity years before, Ali had
told Muhammad he could get better wives
• Then the governor of Syria demanded some of
Uthman’s assassins to be turned over for
revenge; Ali refused. They made a peace
agreement, but many Muslims left Ali, and he
was then assassinated
Governor of Syria ruled
• He ruled successfully, but when his son
became caliph, the factions resumed. He
demanded homage; resistance arose, and Al
Husayn, Ali’s son, was killed, still mourned by
Shi’a Muslims
Summary after Muhammad
•
•
•
•
•
Abu Bakr slaughtered thousands of apostates
Umar assassinated by a slave he had captured
Uthman assassinated by Muslims
Ali – assassinated by Muslims
Al Husayn – killed by Muslims in battle
Deaths by jihad
•
•
•
•
•
•
Africans = 120 million
Christians – 60 million
Jews – a few thousand
Hindus = 80 million
Buddhists – 10 million
Total: approximately 270 million