Download CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Climate is one of the essential and

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Climate is one of the essential and profoundly influential factors, which influence
life everyday and in many ways. It is essential not only for sustenance of food production,
livestock, natural resources and sound health but also for sustaining socio-cultural systems
and their well-being. Thus, any kind of natural or human induced alterations in climate is a
matter of grave concern. The melting of glaciers, sea-level rise, submergence of coastal
areas, erratic rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures, and increased intensity of natural
disasters are among the few changes felt world over. Thus, climate change is the single most
important and most frequently discussed global phenomenon.
Climate Change refers to the statistical variations in the properties of the climate
system such as changes in global temperatures, precipitation etc., due to natural or human
drivers over a long period of time. Climate change could drastically alter the distribution and
quality of natural resources thereby adversely affecting the livelihood security of the people
(Anonymous 2010).
There is no bigger environmental challenge in the world today than how people
respond to the scientific evidence that global climate is warming – for which more or less,
the human race is responsible. Climate change is not just an environmental issue – it is an
economic issue, a social issue, a security issue and, above all, a moral issue. Smith et al
(2007) stated that climate change, not the action taken to tackle it, is the greatest threat to
growth. The longer the world waits the harder and more expensive it would be. And the cost
will be greatest for the developing world.
The contribution of anthropogenic factors in global climate change has been studied
and proved by various scientists. Major cause to climate change has been ascribed to the
increased levels of greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous
oxides (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) beyond their natural levels due to the
uncontrolled human activities such as burning of fossil fuels, increased use of refrigerants,
and enhanced agricultural activities. Rao et al (2011) reported that the highest CO2
concentration was observed in May and lowest in October. The average CO2 concentration
increased to 385 in 2009, while the concentration of CH4 was recorded as 1774 ppb in 2005.
Both these values exceed by far the natural range over the last 6,50,000 years. A 2003 report
by The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) estimated that India’s CO2 emission levels are
increasing by six per cent per year, as a result the total emissions have increased ten fold
since 1950. At current consumption levels, the CO2 emissions for India are projected to
increase from 237 million metric tons (1997) to 775 million metric tons by the end of the
century.
The Earth’s climate and atmospheric composition have regularly waxed and waned
through the glacial-inter-glacial cycles. Ice core and other palaeo-records provide a
fascinating window on the metabolism of the Earth over hundreds of thousands of years.
Singh (2011) reported that the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration varied from 180220 ppm during the glacial periods to 265-280 ppm during the inter-glacials. The precise
nature of the upper and lower limits of atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration points to
strong control mechanisms – both terrestrial and oceanic biological processes are critical
elements of the control loop. It is interesting to put the very recent human perturbations to
Earth system in the context of this highly regulated pattern. The current concentration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide of about 380 ppm is well above the upper control limit of the
Earth’s recent past; there is no evidence of a state above 280 ppm. The rate of increase of
atmospheric carbon dioxide is about two orders of magnitude higher than that during the
glacial terminations. The rates of increase of mean global temperature over the past several
decades appear to be without precedent in the recent past.
Climate change resulting from human-induced enhancement of the greenhouse
effect; depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer; disruptive seasonal and inter-annual
variation in temperature and precipitation, such as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO);
and large-scale changes in land use and land cover; are some current major global
environmental issues. Although global average conditions change slowly, intramural to
decadal variations do occur at regional (sub-continental) scales, driven by changes in sea
surface temperature and ocean circulation patterns, volcanic eruptions, soil moisture
anomalies, and variations in the amount of solar radiations reaching the Earth. In land use
and land cover, global changes and the resulting losses of productivity of terrestrial
ecosystem are taking place. Land-use change often depletes localized resources of common
value to the social system. Transformation of land from native forest cover to agriculture,
grasslands and urban development can change the natural water cycle, resulting in the
degradation of previously productive land and the loss of biodiversity.
Singh (2011) concluded that though the biggest challenge for human civilization
today is poverty but climate change is the biggest environmental challenge because no part of
the world is immune to it. It is paradoxical that despite increasing evidence of climate
change, many governments are not convinced enough to agree on the issue of reducing
emissions of green house gases. A recently released Shanghai conference report stated that
global warming over the last century could not be explained without human influence. A new
assessment by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has projected a
marked increase in global warming by 1.4 to 5.8oC over the 21st century. Progress in
reducing emissions is slow because while the problem is environmental, the response is
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economic. Economists dominate the negotiations and seek either to shift the ‘costs’
elsewhere or at least defer them. The negotiations are not seen as a response to a common
threat but as sharing of burden. One of the burning issues is that of carbon sinks, i.e., the
question of how much can be allowed to developed countries to offset their emissions by the
uptake of carbon in forests and farmland.
India, being one of the leading economies of the world, faces a dual challenge of
growth and sustainability. The growing Indian aspirations and consumer market put
considerable burden on the available natural resources. Agriculture sector, which is
considered as the backbone of the national economy, faces the major paradox of
development and sustainability. Presently, the threat of climate change poses a challenge for
sustainable agricultural growth. This threat is compounded due to accumulated greenhouse
gas emissions in the atmosphere. While the international community is collectively engaging
itself to deal with this threat, India needs to evolve a national strategy for adapting to climate
change and its variability in order to ensure ecological sustainability in its socio-economic
developmental priorities (Anonymous, 2010). The projections related to the impact of
climate change on agriculture and the requirements for the next decade are clouding the
agriculture sector in the country. If no measures are taken, than the projected long-term yield
reduction will be more than 25 per cent of the present amount. The GDP is projected to
decrease by two per cent (Anonymous, 2009) while, the targeted food grain production in
2020 is around 313 million tonnes (Anonymous, 2006).
Based on the available data, the government policies are directed towards meeting
these challenges. Although, the policies have been formulated keeping in view the climate
issues from a quite few years now, but they have been unsuccessful on the ground, due to
social reasons, lack of economic feasibility or combination of both. Thus, policy makers now
look for measures in agriculture and allied sectors, which not only combat climate change
but also are economically and socially beneficial for the stakeholders. One such way to
mitigate climate change is carbon finance. Carbon finance refers to how one can make
money using carbon credits on carbon markets. Carbon market is the virtual financial place
where persons buy and sell carbon credits, with reference to carbon emissions. One carbon
credit is equivalent to one ton of carbon dioxide emissions.
Both agriculture and forestry are at centre stage of global climate change
negotiations as they have the potential to be a source/sink of carbon emissions and thus can
influence the carbon business. The important point here is that sustainable development and
poverty alleviation are the pre-requisites for any such activity. Thus, it presents a strong case
for economically and socially viable action against the vagaries of climate change. In
agriculture and forestry different sources and sinks release, take up and store three types of
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Green House Gases (GHGs): carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O).
Many agricultural and forestry practices emit GHGs to the atmosphere, such as, by using
nitrogenous fertilizers, N2O is released from the soil and by burning agricultural residues
CO2 levels rise; CH4 is set free in the digestion process of livestock, as well as if rice is
grown under flooded conditions.
Agriculture also provides a sink and has the potential to lessen climate change.
Carbon is stored and sequestered ‐ above‐ground by plants, crops and trees, and
below‐ground in the soil and roots. Carbon sequestration means that carbon dioxide is
captured from the atmosphere through photosynthesis by the tree or plant to store it as
cellulose in its trunk, branches, twigs, leaves and fruit and oxygen is released to the air in
return. Also, the roots of the trees and plants take up carbon dioxide. Decomposing organic
materials increase the amount of carbon stored in the soil, which is higher than the total
amount in the vegetation and the atmosphere. Animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out
CO2 and through their faeces carbon, N2O and methane are released to the atmosphere and
soil. (Elverfeldt, 2010)
Conservation agriculture and judicious management of the complex input-output
systems in agriculture are the potential carbon sinks in the sector. Also, India is actively
participating in the discussions on forestry that are taking place under the Bali Action Plan
(BAP) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Indian negotiators are pressing for an agreement on a comprehensive framework for
compensation and positive incentives for forestry as a part of the ongoing climate change
negotiations. It is important that any such agreement provides incentives not only for
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD), but also for
Sustainable Management of Forests (SMF) and Afforestation & Reforestation (A&R). A
“REDD Plus” approach that includes SMF and A&R is required in order to fulfill the
principles of equity and efficiency. India has put forward a formal submission on a potential
conceptual framework for such an agreement as part of the UNFCCC process, which sets up
a sound foundation for discussion towards an agreement.
The importance of forests at global stage is evidenced through two successive
declarations by the United Nations – the year 2011 as the ‘International year of Forests’ and
the World Environment Day – 2012, themed as ‘Green Energy’. Over the last two decades,
progressive national forestry legislations and policies in India aimed at conservation and
sustainable management of forests have reversed deforestation and transformed India’s
forests into a significant net sink of carbon dioxide (CO2). Kainth (2010) concluded that from
1995 to 2005, the carbon stocks stored in our forests and trees have increased from 6,245 to
6,662 million tones (mt), registering an annual increment of 38 mt of carbon or 138 mt of
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CO2 equivalent. India’s forests serve as a major sink of CO2. Estimates show that the annual
CO2 removals by India’s forest and tree cover is enough to neutralize 11.25 per cent of
India’s total GHG emissions (CO2 equivalent). This is equal to offsetting 100 per cent
emissions from all energy in residential and transport sectors; or 40 per cent of total
emissions from the agriculture sector. Clearly, India’s forest and tree cover is serving as a
major mode of carbon mitigation for India and the world. India, therefore, is one of the few
developing countries in the world that is making a net addition to its forest and tree cover
over the last two decades and serving as a major mode of carbon sink.
To slow down climate change impacts, the emissions of GHGs need to be reduced
immediately. As explained above several activities in agriculture and forestry contribute to
GHG emissions. Changing these and switching to new sustainable land management
practices can support the uptake and the reduction of GHGs. Some agricultural activities can
increase the amount of organic matter and carbon in the soil by using cover crops or reduce
the emissions of methane through improving feeding practices. Sustainable forest
management can avoid the destruction of forests and the release of CO2, and planting new
trees sequester more CO2.
The Kyoto Protocol has entered into force in 16th February 2005 and thus, carbon
sequestration and storage has eventually become a true global commodity, with fully
interchangeable products. The carbon or greenhouse gas (GHG) market is at the turning point
from being a niche market to become a market at global scale. Carbon stored in biomass
through sequestration, conservation or substitution measures has become a real asset that can
generate additional income for forestry dependent communities and the rural poor in
developing countries. Carbon sequestration or conservation activities are eligible for
voluntary, non-Kyoto compliant schemes. The 2012 Rio 20+ global meet has further
strengthened the commitment to reduce GHG emissions, based on critical evaluation of
progress during past 20 years in context to global carbon markets and carbon trading.
However, the major international and national mechanisms are not yet fully implemented in
all participating countries and intermediary institutions need to be developed. Significant
barriers at the local project level should be addressed and supportive framework conditions at
the national, regional and international levels need to be created. This will empower forestdependent and rural communities that depend on the land use and forestry sector to
participate in the global greenhouse gas markets. Agricultural extension and advisory
services, both public and private, thus have a major role to play in providing farmers with
information, technologies, and education on how to cope with climate change and ways to
contribute to GHG mitigation. This support is especially important for resource-scarce
smallholders, who contribute little to climate change and yet will be among the most
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affected. But due to lack of awareness and support from the extension agencies, they are
unable to improve their livelihoods and reap benefits and financial returns that can be
delivered by land-use, land-use change, forestry projects and agricultural practices, aiming at
climate change mitigation. Thus, considering the global developments and the consequent
implications on our country’s interest, it is very important to study the preparedness and
opinion of the agricultural scientists and extension personnel regarding the usefulness and
applicability of carbon trading in our conditions.
However, no study has been conducted in this context so far in Punjab state. Keeping all
these facts in view, the present study entitled “Awareness and opinion of agricultural
scientists and extension personnel regarding carbon trading” was undertaken with the
following specific objectives.
1.1
Objectives of the Study:
i.
To study the socio-personal profile of agricultural scientists and extension personnel.
ii.
To study the awareness level of agricultural scientists and extension personnel about
carbon trade.
iii.
To assess the opinion of the agricultural scientists and extension personnel about the
role of carbon trading in mitigating climate change in agriculture.
iv.
1.2
To prepare a booklet on present state of carbon trading in India.
Significance of the Study
Climate change and its implications on agricultural and forestry sector have been
studied and documented throughout the world. The results indicate that adaptation and
mitigation efforts towards changing climatic parameters are the keys to sustain agriculture
and forestry activities in the coming future. Also, the developing countries are bound to bear
maximum brunt of such climatic alterations, due to two important reasons. First, since their
economies are largely dependent on primary sectors of production and second, since they
lack technological and financial support to fight back. The global organizations are thus
focusing on reducing the emissions of the green house gases on the one hand, while looking
for adaptation and mitigation at the global level, on the other hand. One such measure is
carbon trading, where the developed nations provide technical and financial support for
sequestering, reducing and replacing the green house gases (GHGs) with clean and
renewable energy sources. Since, the developing nations have less consumerism and more
land resources, so these funds are targeted to these nations. India being a developing, but
aspiring nation is among the best destinations for these activities. However, the response to
this opportunity will depend to a large extent on the preparedness and ability to bring
benefits to the Indian community. Technology and finance are the major constraints faced,
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while the plan for growth is put on a sustainable and environment friendly trajectory. The
carbon markets presents both, the developed nations thus, can meet their binding targets as
planned in Kyoto Protocol and recently, during the Durban conference and Rio 20+ on
climate change, while the developing nations can get latest technology and investment. India,
being both agricultural based and developing economy, can play a significant role in carbon
markets. Elaborate research results are required on the potential of our forest and farmland
resources on the one hand and extensive area specific policies in consensus with the global
developments on the other. The insecurities and apprehensions are no doubt present in the
global agenda and action on climate change. Also, the carbon markets have shown irregular
trends since their inception, but all available options to grow and benefit the farming
community must be availed. Many communities of our country are already adapting and
mitigating the impacts of climate change, using the indigenous technical knowledge.
Adaptation holds the only key for survival in the coming time, so all we need is to identify
them, present in the form acceptable at the global carbon markets and help the communities
reap the economic benefits, they deserve so rightfully. Thus, it is of utmost importance to
study the preparedness of the scientists and extension agents in this area. The awareness and
opinion of the agricultural scientists and extension personnel will shape the participation of
Indian farming and forestry community at the global stage. Hence, this study will prove
helpful to planners, executers, end-users and other educational centers.
1.3
Limitations of the Study
1.3.1
The study is limited to the agricultural scientists of eight departments of the Punjab
Agricultural University (PAU), Ludhiana and extension personnel of Ludhiana
district of Punjab due to paucity of time and resources.
1.3.2
The study is exploratory in nature, as it covers more of breadth than depth.
1.3.3
Although every effort has been made to get unbiased response from the respondents,
psychological behaviour of not revealing the truth cannot be completely ruled out.
1.3.4
The findings of the study are based solely on the expressed opinion of the
respondents and the objective to the desired level might not be achieved for
extrapolation.
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A comprehensive review of literature is crucial to any research study. The main
objectives of review of literature are to find out what work, both theoretical and empirical
has been done earlier; assist in delineation of the problem area; provide insight into methods
and procedures; provide a basis for theoretical framework; suggest operational definitions of
major concepts and provide a basis for interpretation of the findings. Availability of literature
directly related to the problem under investigation was limited. However, the literature
collected for the study has been classified broadly into following six categories:
2.1 Awareness level and consequences of climate change.
2.2 Carbon sequestration.
2.3 Agricultural systems and carbon sequestration.
2.4 Carbon trading and its awareness.
2.5 Opinion regarding climate change and carbon trading.
2.6 Booklet on carbon trading and climate change mitigation.
2.1
Awareness level and consequences of climate change
Sejdo (1989) estimated that up to 500 m ha of tree plantations would be required to
absorb the estimated annual increment of 2.9 billion tons of carbon. Houghton (1994)
reported that the destruction of forests, primarily because of their conversion for agricultural
uses and the absence of appropriate fire management regimes accounts for between 20-30
per cent of anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
In an evaluative study of the knowledge level on effects of climate change on
agricultural productivity in Europe and the related consequences for policy formulation and
research strategy, Olesen and Bindi (2002) stated that warming was expected to lead to a
northward expansion of suitable cropping areas and a reduction of the growing period of
determinate crops (e.g. cereals), but an increase for indeterminate crops (e.g. root crops).
Research study indicated that increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations will directly
enhance plant productivity and also increase resource use efficiencies in this region. On the
other hand, in northern areas climate change may produce positive effects on agriculture
through introduction of new crop species and varieties, higher crop production and expansion
of suitable areas for crop cultivation.
Concluding a study on climate change, Badami (2004) stated that the motor vehicle
activity was growing rapidly in India, which is contributing seriously to health and welfare
hazard of human being, energy insecurity, acidification and climate change. He further
emphasised on proper policy making, implementation and value focused thinking to mitigate
the climate related problem.
Fulekar (2004) reported that the mangrove ecosystems, found at the inter-tidal zone,
are colonized by mangrove plants and rich diverse animal life. The mangroves are being
greatly affected by various anthropogenic activities and climate change, especially in the
urban areas of coastal regions. He concluded that the enhanced human activities put serious
threats for the mangrove ecosystems of Mumbai.
Kumar (2004) studied unsustainable utilization of mangrove forest and reported that
the degradation of mangrove forests posed a serious threat to their conservation and
consequently adversely affect the development of local communities. Meinke et al (2004)
during a project activity created a network among scientists and farmers by building
partnership with various stakeholders on climate change which helped to increase awareness
among the farmers.
In a research on climate change and Indian Coastal ecosystem, Ramesh and Purvaja
(2004) concluded that the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) has been
increasing in the earth’s atmosphere. They reviewed the processes involved in climate
change and their effect on sea level rise and on the coastal ecosystems.
Sathaye et al (2006) mentioned that as India was a large developing country with
nearly two-third of the population depending directly on the climate sensitive sectors such as
agriculture, fisheries and forests, the projected climate change under various scenarios is
likely to have implications on food production, water supply, biodiversity and livelihoods.
Thus, India has a significant stake in scientific advancement as well as an international
understanding to promote mitigation and adaptation. This requires improved scientific
understanding, capacity building, networking and broad consultation processes.
Two-third of the sample said they had some knowledge about climate change, 28 per
cent said they knew little about climate change and only nine per cent said they had a lot of
knowledge in a study conducted by Dietz et al (2007). Eight per cent of the respondents had
not obtained any type of climate change information from any of the sources about which
they were asked. They also conducted a study to measure awareness of consequences by
using modified ‘bad consequences’ scale (given by O’Conor et al 1999), in which six survey
items were designed to measure beliefs about the possible negative consequences of climate
change to individuals and other species by using four point scale from very unlikely to very
likely.
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Gareau (2007) reported that local people believed that natural environment had been
depleted over the years. Forest vegetation, watershed vegetation and all types of animal
species are observed to decline. He found that integration of outside knowledge with local
ideas led to conflict and discord.
Impact of climate change on agricultural production and trade by combining climate
change models with agricultural trade model such as the ‘Basic Linked System’ (BLS)
developed by FAO was studied by Ludi et al (2007). They developed a model of
environmental constraints for agriculture which showed that under current climatic
conditions about two-third of the global land surface (8.9 billion hectares) will suffer
severely as 13.20 per cent of this area is under too cold conditions, 26.50 per cent is under
too dry conditions, 4.60 per cent land is too steep, two per cent is too wet and 19.80 per cent
has too poor soil for crop cultivation. The result of modeling showed that under current
climatic scenario, land suitable for cultivation will expand significantly in North America
(40% increase), Europe (16% increase), Russian Federation (64% increase) and East Asia
(10% increase) by 2080. In contrast, significant losses of arable land are predicted in
Northern and Southern parts of Africa and Asian countries due to increase in heat and water
stress in these regions. Ten to twenty per cent losses were predicted in cereal production in
African countries.
Observing that community priorities were shifting in response to the scientific reality
and socio-economic threats of climate change, Elliott et al (2008) developed a model – “The
National Network for Sustainable Living Education”; which has identified six essential steps
for creating a national approach to extension programming for attaining a sustainable future
for communities and environment.
Swaminathan (2009) said that climate awareness at the grass-root level could help
local communities to cope up with the adverse impact of climate change in a better way. He
also introduced the concept of local level climate risk managers who can spread both climate
and genetic literacy and create awareness about climate change among the people at grassroot level.
Aerosol’s impact on climate change in the North-western Indian Himalayan region
of Himachal Pradesh, India was studied by Kuniyal and Kumar (2011). They observed the
aerosol optical depth (AOD), a unit of aerosol measurement for the last four years and found
that the AOD values are higher at shorter wavelengths and lower at larger wavelengths. It
increased at 500 nm at the rate of 07.33 per cent per annum from 0.22 AOD in 2007 to 0.27
AOD in 2010. Overall, the AOD values (380 to 1025 nm) were found to be 0.21 to 0.24,
which is, increasing at the rate of 03.57 per cent per annum. The monthly mean concentration
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of black carbon (BC) was noticed maximum in January, 2010, at 6,617ngm-3. This
atmospheric pollution load in the form of AOD values translate into temperature rise by
~0.72 kelvin per day in the region. The local as well as transported aerosols together
contribute to the present aerosols in the region. The sources in majority are local for
anthropogenic aerosols, which include biomass burning (like fuel wood for cooking), forest
fires and open waste burning. While the transported aerosols mainly comprised of mineral
fine dust from desert regions and sulphate aerosol from oceanic regions with the air masses
moving prior to the western disturbances as well as monsoonal winds in the region.
The local people’s perception about the impact of climate change on medicinal and
aromatic plants (MAP) in high hill temperate region of Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh,
India was investigated by Singh (2011) and he reported that about 97 per cent of the people
in the study region attributed the diminishing presence of MAP in the region to climate
change. More than 85 per cent of the respondents were of the view that one can mitigate the
effect of climate change by planting more and more trees in the forests, by increasing natural
regeneration of the forests, by adopting the modern techniques of agriculture, by reducing the
poisonous emission of gases in the factories and by encouraging the organic cultivation.
In a study ‘Climate Change in the Indian Mind’ conducted by Yale Foundation in
India, it was concluded that about 72 per cent respondents believed that global warming was
happening. However, relatively few of them question the reality of climate change and the
scientific findings as compared to US. Around 73 per cent reposed their faith in scientists,
followed by news media (69 per cent) as the most trusted sources of information on global
warming. About 61 per cent of respondents felt that global warming affected them
personally, 67 per cent felt it would harm future generations, 62 per cent felt Indian people
will be affected in the coming future, 57 per cent felt their families would be affected and 43
per cent felt it would be harmful in the next 10 years for Indians generally. In another set of
significant findings it was found that 38 per cent felt that India should reduce emissions
irrespective of what others did, 18 per cent felt Indians should do only if rich countries did
so, 13 per cent felt Indians should go ahead only if all other countries did so at the same time,
while 13 per cent felt India should not reduce its emissions under any circumstances.
(Chishti, 2012)
2.2
Carbon sequestration
The conversion of forest to agricultural ecosystems affects several soil properties but
especially soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration and stock. The conversion to an
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agricultural land use invariably results in the depletion of SOC stock by 20-50%, as reported
by Davidson and Ackerman (1993).
Houghton et al (1994) concluded that a re-released carbon dioxide (CO2) molecule
will have a smaller impact on global warming than when it was first sequestered because of
the saturation effect with increasing CO2 concentration in the infra-red spectrum.
A method of comparing reductions in CO2 emission with carbon storage was derived
by Bird (1997). He concluded, assuming a time horizon of 100 years, that storage of a tonne
of carbon for one year was approximately equivalent to a permanent emission reduction of
0.0088 tonnes of carbon.
Three factors were reported by Johnsen et al (2001), which were needed to
determine the amount of carbon sequestered: (1) the increased amount of carbon in standing
biomass, due to land-use changes and increased productivity; (2) the amount of recalcitarant
carbon remaining below ground at the end of the tree rotation; and (3) the amount of carbon
sequestered products created from the harvested wood, including their final disposition.
The carbon sequestration potential of land-use systems are relatively simple as they
revolve around the fundamental biological processes of photosynthesis, respiration and
decomposition. This was revealed in a study conducted by Nair and Nair (2003).
In a research study, Montagnini and Nair (2004) concluded that the value of forests
and trees in sequestering carbon and reducing carbon dioxide emission to the atmosphere is
being recognized increasingly world over. It was suggested that the research addressing both
biophysical and socio-economic issues of carbon sequestration is required.
Lal (2005) reported that climate change may also stimulate forest growth by
enhancing availability of mineral nitrogen and through the CO2 fertilization effect, which
may partly compensate release of soil carbon in response to warming. Soil carbon
sequestration in boreal and temperate forests may be an important strategy to ameliorate
changes in atmospheric chemistry.
In an investigation on the biomass production and carbon sequestration potential of
four fast growing multipurpose tree (MPT) species viz., Albizia procera, Casuarina
equisetifolia, Eucalyptus tereticornis and Gmelina arborea at 20 years stand age. Above
ground C sequestration potential, of the four MPTs studied showed wide variation by
Madhusudanan et al (2011), it was observed that among the four species studied, A. procera
and C.equisetifolia recorded higher C sequestration potential, which was 189.93 Mg/ha and
185.85 Mg/ha, respectively. Except G.arborea, all tree species recorded higher carbon
sequestration, which is comparable to earlier recorded values for tropical forests. Enhanced
soil-C storage (0-30cm) was also found under trees compared to tree less open areas.
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2.3
Agricultural systems and carbon sequestration
Indian soils are largely carbon–depleted but can be brought back to their native
carbon-carrying capacity by reforestation and agroforestry as stated by Gupta and Rao
(1994). The current stock of organic carbon in Indian soils (24.3 Pg) can be increased to 34.9
Pg, the difference representing the potential for sequestrating additional carbon in soils.
Reforestation of about 35 m ha wastelands with suitable tree and grass species can sequester
0.84 and 1.06 Pg of carbon in vegetation and soil respectively.
Singh and Lal (2000) reported that through managed forestry programmes, carbon
mitigation of about 3.32 Gt can be obtained from degraded lands totaling to 129.57 m ha, in
the next 50 years, with an annual reduction of about 0.072 Gt of carbon.
In a research study, Montagnini and Nair (2004) revealed that the forest plantations
and agroforestry systems have the potential to regain some of the carbon lost to the
atmosphere in the clearing of primary and secondary forests. Also they have the added
benefit of providing valuable products and food to local people.
Singh (2005), Khan and Chaturvedi (2007), and Newaj and Dhyani (2008) reported
that the introduction of trees in agricultural farms is a useful tool to lock up the carbon in tree
components and increase the soil carbon status because the presence of trees affect carbon
dynamics directly or indirectly.
The impacts of agro-forestry on greenhouse gas emissions range according to the
above ground biomass, the litter layer that protects the soil surface, the degree of soil
compaction that influences gas exchange with the atmosphere and the level of soil aeration
and with the nitrogen balance of the system, as reported by Kandji and Verchot (2006).
Trees provide an assurance to the farmers towards agricultural production in normal
rainfall year, while in drought years they provide top feed for livestock. Singh and Sharma
(2007) further stated that the trees improve soil productivity through ecological and physiochemical changes depending upon the quality and quantity of litter reaching the soil surface
and the rate of litter decomposition and nutrient release.
In a study conducted in Central Punjab, Gupta et al (2009) concluded that the
average soil organic carbon increased from 0.36 in sole crop to 0.66% in agroforestry soils.
The soils under agroforestry had 2.9-4.8 Mg per ha higher soil organic carbon than in sole
crop. The sandy clay could sequester higher carbon (2.85 Mg per ha per year) than in loamy
sand (2.32 Mg per ha per year). The poplar trees could sequester higher soil organic carbon
in 0-30 cm profile during the first year of their plantation (6.07 Mg per ha per year) than the
subsequent years (1.95- 2.63 Mg per ha per year).
13
Chauhan et al (2009) measured the biomass partitioning and carbon allocation in
different components of forest growing tree species. The highest tree stem carbon storage
(6.05 t/ha) was recorded in Aerocarpus fruxini folious.
In a study on agricultural systems, Chauhan et al (2010) reported that the total
biomass in agri-silvicultural system was 113.6% higher; the net carbon storage was 34.61
tonnes/ha in wheat-poplar interface compared to 18.74 tonnes/ha in sole wheat cultivation
and the organic carbon increased in soil (0-15cm) by 35.6% than pure wheat crop.
The Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF), an approach that became
popular in the context of the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC) allows the use of C sequestration through afforestation and
reforestation as a form of GHG-offset activities, as concluded by Madhusudanan et al
(2011). Tropical fast growing MPTs in this regard assume greater importance on account of
their enormous potential to produce biomass and sequester atmospheric carbon.
Revealing various studies Pandey and Sujatha (2011) stated that for short rotation
forest species, the amount of carbon offset increases linearly with time since biomass is
continuously harvested, replanted and used. The carbon benefit at any time is highest for
short rotation poplar plantation. This may be attributed to the high carbon sequestration rate
and high energy conversion efficiencies.
2.4
Carbon trading and its awareness
Shea (1998) reported that the 1997 Kyoto protocol based on the 1992 Framework
Convention on Climate Change means that carbon stored in trees has a real commercial
value. The science that underpins the use of carbon sequestration to reduce CO2
concentrations in the atmosphere is relatively simple. Plants absorb 3.7 units of CO2 during
photosynthesis to produce one unit of carbon stored in plant tissue. In perennial plants this
carbon remains removed from the atmosphere for varying lengths of time.
In a study, Bass et al (2000) reported that the effectiveness of carbon sequestration
strategies as a means of generating genuine carbon benefits with minimal adverse social
impacts depends to a large extent on the underlying social and economic drivers of land use
change and forest exploitation (i.e., land speculation, timber extraction, and subsistence
livelihoods mainly).
While assessing the potential of carbon trading, Oosterman (2000) reported that
carbon trade is a voluntary transaction. A CDM-type forestry project will only be
implemented if both parties - the buyer and the supplier of carbon emission reductions - feel
that the project is in their interest. This has important implications for designing
implementation guidelines for such projects. From the point of view of the buyer, containing
14
illegal logging and waste from log production are the most promising actions to reduce
carbon emissions from forestry. These actions are not necessarily in the interest of the
supplier. Poor government also raises the question how buyers and supplier groups with
limited political influence can ensure that their goods (reduced carbon emissions and
compensation) are indeed delivered. An additional complication is that carbon trade
agreements are complex and that little information is available on how to structure such
arrangements.
Concluding a market study, Gorte and Ramseur (2001) expected that the market size
and opportunities for carbon credits are likely to increase substantially for harvested wood
products in a post-2012 UNFCCC framework.
In a research finding, Montagnini and Nair (2004) stated that in the face of carbon
markets, carbon storage becomes an additional output that landowners might consider in
their management decisions. With the introduction of carbon payments, agroforestry systems
that are otherwise less profitable may become more attractive and vice-versa.
Robledo and Tippmann (2004) reported that a number of projects have been
designed with the objective of poverty reduction, and the experience from these projects
demonstrates that appropriately designed land-use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF)
carbon project activities can represent new opportunities for the local communities and the
private sector through joint project activities.
Scherr et al (2004) reported that with the Kyoto Protocol entering into force in
February 2005, carbon sequestration and storage has eventually became a true global
commodity, with fully interchangeable products. The carbon or greenhouse gas (GHG)
market is at the turning point from being a niche market to become a market at global scale.
However, the major international and national mechanism are not yet fully implemented in
all participating countries and intermediary institutions are, and still need to be developed.
In a critical evaluation of carbon markets, Tippmann (2005) reported that the
challenge being faced by the marginalized groups in the GHG market and their supporters
face is to ensure the participation of these groups in the global GHG markets so that a share
of the revenues from sales of certified emission reductions (CERs), already limited due to the
restrictions imposed on the utilization of the CERs from afforestation and reforestation Clean
Development Mechanism (AR CDM) projects, will be made available to them. The
empowerment of these groups to manage their carbon assets and participate in the market
calls for a complex and multi-level way of proceeding or strategy.
Studying the potential of voluntary carbon markets in India, Jindal et al (2007)
reported that the combined annual sequestration potential of three organizations in India 15
Seva Mandir, the Foundation of Ecological Security (FES) and the International Small Group
and Tree Planting Program (TIST), is 104,427 tons of CO2 worth $417,708 at 2007 prices.
Canadell and Raupach (2008) concluded that combining all forestry activities
together, there is economic potential to achieve 0.4 Pg C per year by 2030 using carbon
sequestration and avoidance at US $ 20 per ton of CO2, and double this amount for prices
under US$ 100 per ton of CO2.
Rousseau (2008) reported that a carbon offset is generated by reduction, avoidance,
or sequestration from a specific project. The primary viable offset for forestry is afforestation
of traditionally agronomic fields. “Offset” means that a specific project counteracts or offsets
carbon that would have been emitted to the atmosphere. Some organizations think offsets are
a critical piece of the climate change solution, because they can be readily implemented
using existing technology
A patent in the US Patent office for community to address carbon offsets was filed
by Branscomb (2009). A club or community of mineral producers or other interested parties
is put together for the purpose of responsibility account for CO2 and/or other pollutants in
produced minerals. The community utilizes a community system to track the amount of CO2
that is associated with produced minerals. The community member sponsoring the mineral
contributes to the community fund an amount representative of the value of the estimated
CO2 as determined by the community system. The community then utilizes the received
funds to invest in carbon offset activities which in turn are returned as benefits to the
community members so that either those members can sell carbon offset accounted minerals
or the community can do so on the community members' behalf.
Another patent was filed in the US Patent office by Sullivan (2010), on the method
for determining the phytolithic organic carbon yield of a plant type at a location or region
comprising: a) taking a sample of a plant type growing in a region or location; b) quantifying
phytolithic organic carbon in the sample; c) quantifying a total biomass of the plant type
growing at the location or region; and d) determining the total amount of the phytolithic
organic carbon for the total biomass of the plant type at the location or region.
2.5
Opinion regarding climate change and carbon trading
The opinion regarding climate change and carbon trading has been covered under the
following sub-heads:
2.5.1
Vulnerability to climate change
Bhatt (1998) described the focus group Participatory Evaluation Writing (PEW)
method used by the Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) in India to help poor
16
women in explaining and analysing their vulnerability and the forces that influenced it.
Particular focus was given on the capacity of women to assess and express their
vulnerability.
A model of vulnerability analysis that subsumed all types of vulnerability of people
to natural hazards into four headings- Initial well being (physical and mental condition,
nutritional status); livelihood resilience (the ability to return to previous or new livelihood
activities to secure needs); self protection (peoples’ capacity and willingness to protect
themselves from known hazards); social protection (the presence of hazard precautions
provided by levels of society above the household) by Cannon (2001).
Geographic Information System and Tsunami disaster management was studied by
Papathoma and Dominey (2002) and a model was developed for analysing vulnerability of
Greek coastline to tsunamis, with major emphasis was on physical vulnerability with
estimated number of inhabitants.
A vulnerability index for national level assessment of vulnerability based on a range
of indicators taken mostly from published sources was created by West (2002). He created a
vulnerability index for each country.
In a research investigation, Ghosh (2004) reported that tropical forest biota were
highly vulnerable to habitat fragmentation because of greater species richness, patchy
distributions and presence of rare species with small populations. Long-lived tree species are
living dead, as they are likely to be functionally extinct in fragments well before their
populations have actually disappeared. Some options such as switching crop varieties may be
inexpensive while others, such as introducing irrigation (especially high-efficiency, waterconserving technologies), involve major investments. Economic adjustments include shifts in
regional production canters and adjustments of capital, labour, and land allocations. For
example, trade adjustments should help to shift commodity production to regions where
comparative advantage improves; in areas where comparative advantage declines, labour and
capital may move out of agriculture into more productive sectors.
The global temperature is expected to increase by 1.4 to 5.80 C by 2100, with the
impact of catastrophic changes in climate (Inns 2005), loss of biodiversity (Thomas et al
2004), land degradation and adverse impact on human health, sea level rise, agriculture and
forest production and migration of people in coastal areas.
2.5.2 Adaptation strategy
Adaptation refers to the adjustment made by the people in their behaviour or economic and
livelihood patterns that reduce their vulnerability to climate change induced stresses.
Traditional ecological knowledge base of the community created, maintained and carried
17
down the generation by the community for sustainable use of natural resources for livelihood
and conservation of ecosystem in their area has proved to be strong adaptation strategy to
combat climate change.
Rusten and Gold (1991) reported that understanding the dynamics of indigenous
resource management systems could benefit natural resource development efforts and
contribute to effective on- farm agroforestry research initiative.
In a study of the indigenous rice-fish culture in the rain-fed areas of Northeast
Thailand, Little et al (1996) concluded that the rice-fish culture was very successfully
implemented in that region by extension agency with variable success among small scale
farmers. The study indicates that high value attached to even small quantities of fresh fish is
a major incentive for rice-fish culture, but women who are decision makers in terms of
changes to rice fields and household consumption have often not been fully considered
during promotion of rice-fish.
People living in the forested mountains that belong to an ethnic minority groups and
possess a wealth of local knowledge and skills in forest management were observed by
Rerkasem et al (1999). The research paper shows how local forest management systems have
been adapted to indigenous knowledge and skills. It also showed that farmers’ knowledge
and skills were not static, but continually revised and integrating modern inputs as well as
transfer of new ideas and innovations.
Oosterman (2000) concluded that forestry projects provide significant opportunities
to reduce carbon emissions while promoting sustainable development, as envisaged by the
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The design of a CDM-type forestry projects should
be based on three basic principles:
(1) ensure proper compensation of adversely affected groups;
(2) promote and maintain transparency; and
(3) promote and maintain public awareness.
In conformation to these principles, it was suggested that a CDM type forestry project be
prepared and implemented by a stakeholder forest organization, in which local communities,
local governments and forestry companies are represented.
In an analytical study of the adaptive capacity of a small community of Sachs
Harbour in Canada, Berkes and Jolly (2001) concluded that these local communities changed
their land based activities, cultural and ecological life to cope up with climate change. This
community was successful to adapt themselves against climate change by utilizing their
indigenous technological knowledge.
18
Baethgen et al (2003) said that availability of better climate and agricultural
information helped farmers to make comparative decisions among alternative crop
management practices and this allowed them to choose better strategies that make them cope
well with changes in climatic conditions.
Over the next decade, 48 major tropical and subtropical developing countries will
have the potential to reduce the atmospheric carbon burden by about 2.3 billion tonnes of
carbon as reported by Niles et al (2003). Given a central price of $10 per tonne of carbon and
a discount rate of 3%, this mitigation would generate a net present value of about $16.8
billion collectively for these countries. Achieving this potential would require a significant
global effort, covering more than 50 million hectares of land, to implement carbon friendly
practices in agriculture, forests and previously forested lands.
The adoption of crop diversification in Canadian prairie agriculture for the period
1994-2002, was assessed by Bradshaw et al (2004), reflecting upon its strength and
limitations for managing a variety of risks, including climatic ones. The study showed that
individual farms have become more specialised in their cropping patterns since 1994 and this
trend is unlikely to change in the immediate future, notwithstanding anticipated climate
change and the known risk reducing benefits of crop diversification. The recommendation
from the study was that there was a need to assess and understand the wider strength and
limitations of various suitable and possible adaptations to change in climate.
Social vulnerability indexes to climate change for African countries were created by
Vincent (2004). The result of the study reported that the country with highest level of social
vulnerability was Nigeria followed by other sub-Saharan countries such as Sierra Leone,
Burundi, Madagascar, Burkina Faso, Uganda, Ethiopia and Mauritania. Thompkins and
Adger (2004) studied on the importance of community based resource management and
social learning to enhance their capacity to adapt to the impact of future climate change.
Various disaster management practices by the people of Himalayan region were
discussed by Rautela (2005). He observed that during the course of their habitation the
indigenous people through experience, experimentation and accumulated knowledge devised
ways of reducing their vulnerability to natural hazards. Studies showed that their
understanding was fairly evolved in the areas of earthquake, landslide and drought
management and had devised efficient ways of mitigating the effect of natural or climatic
changes.
Multinominal logit models were used by Kurukulasuriya, and Mendelsohn (2006), to
analyze crop and livestock choices as adaptation options. The study on crop choice showed
that crop choice is climate sensitive and farmers adapt to changes in climate by switching
19
crops. The results from choice models from the livestock study showed that farmers in
warmer temperatures tend to choose goats and sheep as opposed to beef, cattle and chicken.
Goats and sheep can do better in dry and harsher conditions than beef and cattle.
IPCC (2007) has defined adaptation as adjustment or intervention which takes place
in order to manage the losses or take advantage of the opportunities presented by a changing
climate. It is the process of improving society’s ability to cope with changes in climatic
conditions across time scale from short term (e.g. seasonal to annual) to the long term (e.g.
decade to centuries).
A study on various adaptation strategies used by farmers in response to changing
climatic conditions in Southern Africa was conducted by Nhemachena and Hassan (2007).
The results indicated that less than 40 per cent of the respondent did not adopt any adaptation
strategies. The result also showed that mixed crop and livestock farmers were associated with
positive and significant adaptation to changes in climatic conditions and female headed
households were more likely to take up adaptation options. It is also found that households
with access to electricity, tractors, heavy machines and animal power have better chances of
taking up adaptation options. Nyong et al (2007) reported that local population in the African
Sahel region had developed and implemented extensive mitigation and adaptation strategies
through their indigenous knowledge systems that have enabled them to reduce their
vulnerability against climate change
A conceptual model for Participatory Technology Development (PTD) in which
technology is developed in the context of an adoption cycle was proposed by Reed (2007).
He concluded that it is possible to facilitate more effective participation in agroforestry
technology development between innovators, extensionists and scientists, by better
understanding the characteristics of adoptable technologies. The extensionists and scientists
must adopt new roles to facilitate diffusion of innovations, gaining access to and building on
local innovation as the starting point for development interventions.
There are several ways that extension systems can help farmers deal with climate
change. Kristin (2009) concluded that these include adaptation and contingency measures for
what cannot be prevented. Extension can help farmers prepare for greater climate variability
and uncertainty, create contingency measures to deal with exponentially increasing risk, and
alleviate the consequences of climate change by providing advice on how to deal with
droughts, floods, and so forth. Extension can also help with mitigation of climate change.
This assistance may include providing links to new markets (especially carbon), information
about new regulatory structures, and new government priorities and policies.
2.6
Booklet on carbon trading and climate change mitigation
20
A policy paper titled “Carbon Trading for Sustainable Forest Management: The Case
of the Berau Model Forest” in Jakarta, Indonesia was documented by Oosterman (2000). In
the paper he discussed various aspects of carbon trading, carbon markets, sustainable
development of the participating community, risks and barriers for buyers and suppliers and
recommended policy guidelines for future action.
Sixty scientifically agreeable practices practices out of total 147 identified
indigenous practices were documented in the form of a booklet by Singh (2003), in a study
conducted in Malwa region of Punjab State.
A number of indigenous technological knowledge on rain-water management, soil
and water conservation, wind erosion, tillage practices, crop and cropping systems, pests and
disease management, soil fertility management, farm implements, post-harvest technology,
grain or seed storage, horticultural crops, veterinary and animal husbandry, fishery, ethnobotany and agro-biodiversity, weather forecasting, fuel management, thermal efficiency,
waste water management, garbage disposal and management, food-product development,
natural yarns, dyes, days and weaves, low-cost housing material and ethnic food were
published by Kumar (2009).
Elverfeldt (2010) reported the various carbon finance possibilities for Agriculture,
Forestry and Other Land Use Projects in a smallholder context in a booklet form. Various
project types and funding organizations working at global level were discussed.
21
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research methodology is the most important parameter to judge the worth of any
research activity. A carefully planned and well documented methodology acts as a torch to
help the researcher carry forward his journey in the investigation process. Keeping this view
at the central place and after thoroughly studying the available literature, the present study
was planned on the basis of suitable research methods and appropriate tools to measure the
outcome.
The purpose of this chapter is to describe the research methods and techniques used in
conducting this research. The various aspects included in this chapter have been organized
under the following sub heads:
3.1
Locale of the study
3.2
Selection of the respondents
3.3
Selection of the variables
3.4
Operational definitions
3.5
Construction of research instrument
3.6
Pretesting of instrument
3.7
Final research instrument
3.8
Collection of data
3.9
Tabulation and analysis of data
3.10
Preparation of booklet
3.1
Locale of the study
The present study was conducted in the Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) and
purposively selected district i.e. Ludhiana due to the convenience of the researcher.
3.2
Selection of the respondents
Agricultural Scientists from Punjab Agricultural University and the extension
personnel from the State Departments of Agriculture and Horticulture, Ludhiana were
selected for the purpose of the present study. From PAU, six departments from the College
of Agriculture and one department each from the College of Basic Sciences and Humanities
and College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, were selected. Thus, a total sample
of eight departments was purposively selected, keeping in view the research topic. From
these eight selected departments, a sample of 80 agricultural scientists was taken, following
the probability proportional to the total number of scientists working in each department.
Another sample of 40 extension personnel was selected from the State Departments of
Agriculture and Horticulture, by following probability proportional to the total number of
extension personnel working in Ludhiana district of Punjab state. Thus, a final sample of 120
respondents was selected for conducting the present study.
Sr.
Total no. of
Respondents
Selected
Sample
Size
Actual
Response
Agronomy
23
12
11
Horticulture
20
09
06
Agrometeorology
10
05
05
Extension Education
13
07
07
Forestry and NR
10
05
05
Soil Science
40
20
16
and
38
19
15
Energy
05
03
03
159
80
68 (85.00)
Agriculture
60
34
32
Horticulture
08
06
06
Total
68
40
38(95.00)
Grand Total
227
120
106(88.33)
Respondents
Department
No.
1.
Agricultural
Scientists
Economics
Sociology
School
Studies
of
Total
2.
Extension
Personnel
* Figures in parenthesis indicate the percentage of the respondents out of total sample size
who actually responded
The overall non-response of the respondents came out to be 11.77 per cent well
within the comfortable level.
3.3
Selection of the variables
The variables for the present study were selected after reviewing the other related
research studies and having thorough discussion with the members of advisory committee.
The following variables were, thus, finally selected for conducting the present study:
3.3.1
Age
3.3.2
Gender
3.3.3
Designation
3.3.4
Educational qualification
3.3.5
Service experience
3.3.6
Trainings acquired
3.3.7
Participation in seminars/conferences/workshops
3.3.8
Use of mass media sources
23
3.3.9
Awareness of climate change and its implications and carbon trading and related
aspects
3.3.10
Opinion regarding climate change and its implications and carbon trading and
related aspects
3.3.11
Constraints faced by the respondents regarding carbon trading and carbon projects
3.3.12
Constraints perceived by the respondents regarding carbon trading and carbon
projects
3.4
Operational definitions
3.4.1
Age
It refers to the chronological age of the respondent in terms of completed years at the
time of data collection. Based on this criteria, the respondents were categorized into
following three categories by using cumulative frequency cube root method (Singh, 1975).
3.4.2
Category
Age Range
Young
25-38 years
Middle
38-50 years
Old
51-62 years
Gender
It refers to the sex to which the respondent belonged i.e. male or female.
3.4.3
Designation
It refers to actual post or position held by the respondent in his/her respective area of
employment at the time of data collection. Separate categories were prepared for agricultural
scientists and extension personnel, depending on designations in their respective fields.
Agricultural scientists were categorized into three categories viz., professor/equivalent;
associate professor/ equivalent; and assistant professor/ equivalent.
For the extension personnel, the categorization was done into six designations, as per the
hierarchical set up of the state departments as Deputy Director, Agriculture Officer (A.O.);
Agriculture Development Officer (ADO); Horticulture Development Officer (HDO); Soil
Testing Officer; and Assistant Agricultural Engineer (AAE).
3.4.4
Educational qualification
It refers to the formal education obtained by the respondent. The minimum
educational qualification requirement for job in PAU is M.Sc. So, the categorization for the
agricultural scientists was done as: Masters’ and Doctorate. For the extension personnel,
there were four categories of qualification as: Diploma (Agriculture); Graduation; Masters’
and Doctorate.
24
3.4.5
Service experience
It refers to number of years of service rendered by the respondent in his/her present
job. It has been categorized into three categories by using cumulative frequency cube root
method as follows:
3.4.6
Category
Service Experience (years)
I
1-12
II
13-26
III
27-40
Trainings acquired
Training refers to acquisition of knowledge and skills by the respondent so as to be
fit, qualified and proficient in doing his job. In the present study, it referred to the number of
training programmes attended by the respondents in agriculture and allied aspects during the
last five years. The categorization was done as given in the table below. One score was given
for each of the training attended.
3.4.7
Category
Numbers of Trainings
I
No training
II
Low (1-3)
III
Medium (4-7)
IV
High (8-10)
Participation in seminars/conferences/workshops
It referred to the number of seminars/conferences/workshops in which the
respondent actually participated in any form such as organizer, member, paper presenter, etc.
during the last two years. One score was given for each of the participation.
3.4.8
Category
Number of Conferences/Seminars/Workshops etc.
I
No participation
II
One
III
Two
IV
More than two
Use of mass media sources
This referred to the frequency of using different media viz. television, radio, farm
literature, Information Communication Technology (ICT) etc. by the respondents to gain or
improve the knowledge related to their field of expertise. It was measured on three point
25
continuum- often, seldom and never, with scores of two, one and zero respectively. The three
categories thus formed were as given below:
3.4.9
Category
Score Range
Low
4-9
Medium
9-14
High
14-19
Awareness of climate change and its implications and carbon trading and
related aspects
This was defined as the conscious exposure of the respondent to climate change and
various aspects of carbon trading and his response on various statements from the
questionnaire. It was measured on dichotomous scale aware and not aware with the score of
one and 0 respectively. The overall range was calculated for the awareness score and then the
score was distributed equally into three categories. The categories thus formed were as given
below.
Category
Score Range
Low
3-22
Medium
23-42
High
43-60
3.4.10 Opinion regarding climate change and its implications and carbon trading and
related aspects
This referred to the prevailing view of the respondents regarding the statements
related to climate change and carbon trading. It was measured on three point scale: agree, do
not agree and neutral. For positive statements, a score of ‘one’ was given for ‘agree’; ‘zero’
for ‘neutral’; and a score of ‘negative one’ for ‘do not agree’ and for negative statements, the
scoring was reversed. The three categories thus formed were as given below. The overall
range was calculated for the opinion score and then the score was distributed equally in three
categories as low, medium and high.
Category
Score Range
Low
-01 to 7
Medium
8 to 17
High
18 to 24
26
3.4.11 Constraints faced regarding carbon trading and carbon projects
It referred to the problems or difficulties faced by the respondents regarding carbon
trading and carbon projects. One score was given for each constraint faced by the
respondents.
3.4.12 Perceived constraints regarding carbon trading and carbon projects
It referred to the problems or difficulties of the farmers and forest land owners
regarding carbon trading and carbon projects, as perceived by the respondents. One score
was given for each constraint mentioned.
3.5
Construction of research instrument
A questionnaire was prepared to collect data from the agricultural scientists and
extension personnel. It comprised of three parts:
Part 1: This part included socio-personal profile of the selected agricultural scientists and
the extension personnel like age, gender, designation, qualification, service experience,
trainings attended, reading behaviour, utilization of mass media, participation in seminars,
conferences, workshops, etc.
Part 2: This part consisted of statements regarding climate change and its implications,
carbon trading and its concept, carbon markets, carbon sequestration, carbon trading
activities, various related aspects, etc. It assessed the awareness of the selected agricultural
scientists and the extension personnel regarding various aspects related to Carbon Trading.
Part 3: This part consisted of statements regarding the opinion of selected agricultural
scientists regarding climate change, carbon trading, role of carbon trading in mitigating
climate change, carbon trading potential of agro-forestry systems, agricultural practices like
zero tillage, bio-energy, organic farming, input management, etc.
3.6
Pre-testing of research instrument
Questionnaire so prepared was pre-tested with a sample of 20 respondents from the
non-sampled population of agricultural scientists of PAU and extension personnel of the
State Departments of Agriculture and Horticulture. On the basis of information obtained
through pre-testing, necessary modifications were made in the questionnaire so as to make it
easy for recording the reliable data and to remove the ambiguities.
3.7
Final research instrument
Final research instrument for gathering information from the selected agricultural
scientists of PAU and extension personnel of the State Departments of Agriculture and
Horticulture is appended in Appendix-1.
3.8
Collection of data
After finalizing the research instrument, the data were collected by following
distributed questionnaire approach, from the selected agricultural scientists and extension
27
personnel. In addition to this, personal attention was paid on clarification of doubts of the
respondents related to the questionnaire, if any.
3.9
Tabulation and analysis of data
The entire filled up questionnaire were transferred to the master tables. Tally sheets
and frequency tables were prepared. The data were analyzed with the help of common
statistical tools, appropriate to the nature of data and for the purpose of the study.
3.9.1
Cumulative frequency cube root method
The cumulative frequency cube root method was employed to classify the
respondents into different categories with probability proportional to their number in each
category. (Singh, 1975)
Si =
(N/3 – cfi-1)
Li + --------------- × h
f
where,
Si = ith segment (i = 1, 2, 3, 4….)
Li = Lower limit of the class
cfi-1 = Cumulative frequency of the class preceeding to the quartile class
f = Frequency for quartile class in the 3√f column
h = Width of the class or interval
N = Total of cube root of frequency
3.9.2
Coefficient of correlation
Karl Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient (r) was employed to assess
the degree of relationship between independent (x) and dependent variable (y).
N∑XY - ∑X∑Y
r (X,Y) = --------------------------------------------___________________________
√ [N∑X2 – (∑X)2] – [N∑Y2 – (∑Y)2]
where,
r = Coefficient of correlation
X, Y = Variables
N = Number of observations
∑ = Summation
Further the value of correlation coefficient was tested for significance of relationship using
appropriate test of significance.
28
3.9.3
Chi-square test
The X2 test was used to test the association (or difference) between two variables
distributed in the form of nominal data of their frequencies. The formula for chi-square test
(X2) is used at (r-1, c-1) degrees of freedom, where r signifies the number of rows and c
signifies the number of columns in the table.
( Oj - Ej )2
X (r-1) (c-1) = ∑ ------------j=I
Ej
k
2
where,
X2 = Chi-square test
∑ = Summation
Oj = Observed frequencies for jth cell
Ej = Expected frequencies for jth cell
3. 10
Preparation of Booklet
A booklet “Carbon Trading Possibilities in Agriculture and Forestry” was prepared
discussing the concept of carbon trading, carbon markets, carbon sequestration, related
global organizations, carbon projects, agriculture/forestry activities included under carbon
trading etc. A copy of the same has been appended with the thesis document. The booklet
was prepared with the primary aim of spreading awareness among the masses regarding
carbon trading. Five experts were consulted on the parameters like readability, simplicity,
brevity, understandability, comprehensibility, clarity, preciseness, need orientation,
sequential text and usefulness. The suggestions of the experts were duly taken care of and
required amendments were made in the final text of the booklet.
29
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results are the information obtained and the outcome of an experiment conducted,
with well-defined objectives. The expression of the results is of utmost importance in
reporting any research. Only the generated information out of the raw data is of value to the
users. So, well analysed and well documented results are of prime interest to the users. In this
chapter, the results obtained after careful analysis and interpretation of data are discussed.
For better comprehension, the results related to socio-personal profile of the respondents,
their communication characteristics, awareness and opinion regarding climate change and
carbon trading have been presented as sub-heads. Every sub-head presents the information
analysed from all possible angles, with the support of logical arguments and possible reasons
for the outcome. The various sub-heads so formed are:
4.1
Socio-personal characteristics of the respondents.
4.2
Awareness level of climate change and carbon trading.
4.3
Opinion regarding climate change and carbon trading.
4.4
Relationship and association of socio-personal characteristics of the respondents
with the awareness level of climate change and carbon trading
4.5
Constraints faced in relation to carbon trading and carbon projects.
4.6
Suggestions to overcome the constraints.
4.7
Booklet “Carbon Trading Possibilities in Agriculture and Forestry Sector.
4.8
Extension strategy.
4.1
Socio-personal characteristics of the respondents
The study of socio-personal characteristics provides the preliminary idea about the
respondents. These characteristics influence the other variables like awareness and opinion in
the study. The results obtained under the first objective of the present investigation are
discussed in this section.
4.1.1
Age
Age is defined as the number of chronological years completed by the individual.
However, age is an important characteristic of an individual as it governs the physical,
psychological and behavioural development of the person. Since awareness and opinion are
influenced by the age of the individual, so this variable forms an important component of the
present study. The data collected for this variable has been presented in the Table 4.1.
Among the agricultural scientists, the majority (56.92%) of the respondents belonged to
middle age category, followed by old age (30.77%) and young age (12.31%) categories.
While, majority (50.00%) of the extension personnel belonged to the old age category,
followed by the middle age (39.47%) and young age (10.53%) categories.
Table 4.1: Distribution of the respondents according to their age
Agricultural Scientists (n=65)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Category
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Young(25-38 years)
08
12.31
04
10.53
Middle (38-50 years)
37
56.92
15
39.47
Old (51-62 years)
20
30.77
19
50.00
Agricultural Scientists
40
Extension Personnel
No.of respondents
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Young(25-38 years)
Middle (38-50 years)
Age group
Old (51-62 years)
Fig.1: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of age
4.1.2
Gender
From the data collected, it was concluded that majority of the respondents among
both agricultural scientists (77.94%) and extension personnel (92.11%) were male, as shown
in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Distribution of the respondents according to their gender
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Category
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Male
53
77.94
35
92.11
Female
15
22.06
03
07.89
31
4.1.3
Educational qualification
Educational qualification is an important parameter for growth and development of a
person’s persona and intellect. Education directly influences one’s observation towards
changing conditions in the surroundings.
The data collected in the present study indicates that among the agricultural
scientists, majority (92.65%) of the respondents were doctorates, followed by post graduates
(07.35%). In case of the extension personnel, majority (63.16%) of the respondents were
graduates, followed by post graduates (28.95%), doctorates (05.26%) and diploma holders in
agriculture (02.63%), as shown in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Distribution of the respondents according to their educational qualification
Category
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Diploma
-
-
01
02.63
Graduates
-
-
24
63.16
Masters
05
07.35
11
28.95
Doctorates
63
92.65
02
05.26
Agricultural Scientists
70
Extension Personnel
No. of respondents
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Diploma
Graduates
Masters
Educational qualification
Doctorates
Fig.2: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of Education
4.1.4
Designation
Designation of the individual influences his job characteristics, experience and social
interaction. So, it is another significant factor to study awareness and opinion of the
individuals. Keeping this thought in mind, it was studied under the present investigation. The
32
results obtained indicated that majority (44.12%) of the agricultural scientists were associate
professors or equivalents, followed by professors or equivalents (38.23%) and assistant
professors or equivalents (17.65%), as shown in table 4.4 below.
Table 4.4: Distribution of agricultural scientists according to their designation (n=68)
Category
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Assistant Professor/Equivalent
12
17.65
Associate Professor/Equivalent
30
44.12
Professor/Equivalent
26
38.23
Majority (63.16%) of the extension personnel were A.D.O.s, followed by H.D.O.s
(15.79%), A.O.s (10.53%), assistant agricultural engineers (05.26%), and soil testing officers
and deputy directors (02.63%) each, as given in the table 4.5 below.
Table 4.5: Distribution of extension personnel according to their designation (n=38)
4.1.5
Category
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Deputy Director
01
02.63
Agricultural Officer
04
10.53
Agriculture Development Officer
24
63.16
Horticulture Development Officer
06
15.79
Soil Testing Officer
01
02.63
Assistant Agriculture Engineer
02
05.26
Service experience
Service experience is the measure of theoretical and practical depth of knowledge of
a person. Often knowledge about a subject is directly proportional to the service experience
of the person in that subject. This fact makes it an important research variable. The results in
table 4.6 clearly indicate that majority of the respondents, both agricultural scientists
(64.62%) and extension personnel (47.37%) were having service experience of 13-26 years.
Table 4.6: Distribution of the respondents according to their service experience
Category
Agricultural Scientists (n=65)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
01-12 (years)
11
16.92
12
31.58
13-26 (years)
42
64.62
18
47.37
27-40 (years)
12
18.46
08
21.05
33
This was followed by third (18.46%) and first (16.92%) category in case of
agricultural scientists and first (31.58%) and third (21.05%) category in case of extension
personnel. Overall, agricultural scientists had more service experience than the extension
personnel.
Agricultural Scientists
45
Extension Personnel
No. ofrespondents
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
01-12 (years)
13-26 (years)
Service experience
27-40 (years)
Fig. 3: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of service experience
4.1.6
Use of mass media sources
Use of mass media sources such as radio, television, literature, newspapers, internet
and other ICTs, mobile phones, campaigns/exhibitions/kisan melas, etc. significantly
influence our communication characteristics and related spread of information. More
frequent the usage of these sources more is the awareness about the latest issues. The massmedia usage of the respondents to obtain information in their respective fields of expertise is
presented in Tables 4.7 and 4.8 below.
From the mean score values in table 4.7 of various mass-media sources, it was
observed that radio has become obsolete as a mass-media source of information for both
agricultural scientists (0.69) and extension personnel (0.48). Mobile phones (0.87), other
ICTs (0.62), field days (0.12), personal interactions (0.24) and campaigns (0.82) were among
the least preferred mass-media sources and the usage of internet (1.87), literature (1.88) and
newspapers (1.69) was quite high with the agricultural scientists. Similar results were
observed in case of extension personnel, where mobile phones (0.55), other ICTs (0.00),
farmers’ fields (0.05) and personal interactions (0.05) were least preferred and campaigns
(1.76), exhibitions/ kisan melas (1.84) and newspapers (1.37) were used most frequently.
34
Table 4.7:
Distribution of the respondents according to their mass media usage to
obtain information related to field of expertise
Mass Media
Sources
Usage
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Mean
Score
Often
Seldom
Never
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
31
(45.59)
0.69
03
(07.89)
27
(71.05)
08
(21.05)
0.48
20
(29.41)
14
(20.59)
1.29
02
(05.26)
36
(94.74)
00
(00.00)
1.05
62
(91.18)
04
(05.88)
02
(02.94)
1.88
07
(18.42)
31
(81.58)
00
(00.00)
1.18
Newspapers
53
(77.94)
09
(13.24)
06
(08.82)
1.69
14
(36.84)
24
(63.16)
00
(00.00)
1.37
Internet
62
(91.18)
03
(04.41)
03
(04.41)
1.87
05
(13.16)
33
(86.84)
00
(00.00)
1.13
Mobile
phones
20
(29.41)
19
(27.41)
29
(42.65)
0.87
00
(00.00)
21
(55.26)
17
(44.74)
0.55
Other ICTs
12
(17.65)
18
(47.37)
38
(55.88)
0.62
00
(00.00)
00
(00.00)
38
(100.00)
0.00
Campaigns
19
(27.94)
18
(47.37)
31
(45.59)
0.82
29
(76.32)
09
(23.68)
00
(00.00)
1.76
Exhibition/
Kisan Melas
36
(52.94)
21
(30.88)
11
(16.18)
1.35
32
(84.21)
06
(15.79)
00
(00.00)
1.84
Field days
04
(10.58)
00
(00.00)
64
(94.12)
0.12
01
(02.63)
00
(00.00)
37
(98.53)
0.05
Often
Seldom
Never
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
Radio
10
(14.70)
27
(39.71)
Television
34
(50.00)
Literature
Mean scores
1.04
Mean
Score
0.86
Thus, in order to create awareness or spread information about a subject, these massmedia sources should be targeted over others. The usage of ICTs, other than internet fell
under low category in case of agricultural scientists, while its usage was almost negligible
among the extension personnel. So, considerable efforts are required to make their usage
more frequent in agricultural information sharing and spread. Overall, on an average the use
of mass-media sources by the agricultural scientists (1.04) was found to be more frequent
than the extension personnel (0.86).
Further from the data in table 4.8, it is clear that majority of the respondents, both
agricultural scientists (51.47%) and extension personnel (42.10%), fall in medium category.
This is followed by high (30.88%) and low (17.65%) categories in case of agricultural
35
scientists and equal distribution (28.95% each) in high and low category in case of extension
personnel. High usage of mass-media sources may lead to more awareness about a subject
and also helps to formulate clear opinion on the subject.
Table 4.8: Overall mass media usage by the respondents to obtain information related
to their field of expertise
Category
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
(Score range)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Low (4-9)
12
17.65
11
28.95
Medium (9-14)
35
51.47
16
42.10
High (14-19)
21
30.88
11
28.95
Agricultural Scientists
No. of respondents
50
Extension Personnel
40
30
20
10
0
Low (4-9)
Medium (9-14)
Mass media usage
High (14-19)
Fig.4: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of mass media usage
4.1.7
Trainings attended
Training includes the various kinds of in-service training received by the respondents
to improve their job performance. Training plays a significant role in building up the
technical competence as well as communication skills. Training differentiates a skilled
individual from the unskilled. Training on various aspects of work gives opportunity to an
individual to increase association with work, colleagues and capability to be more efficient.
It was, thereby, expected that the greater the exposure to training of the person, greater can
be the insight of work. Considering its importance, trainings attended during the last five
years, has been taken up in the present study. The results presented in table 4.9, clearly
indicate that among agricultural scientists, majority (52.94%) fell in the low category,
36
followed by no training (33.83%), medium (07.35%) and high categories (05.88%) of
number of trainings attended.
In case of extension personnel, the data revealed that majority (47.37%) did not attended any
training during the last five years, followed by low (36.84%), medium (10.53%) and high
(05.26%) category of the number of trainings attended.
Table 4.9: Distribution of the respondents according to number of trainings attended
during the last five years
Category
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
(Number of
trainings)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
No training (zero)
23
33.83
18
47.37
Low (1-3)
36
52.94
14
36.84
Medium (4-7)
05
07.35
04
10.53
High (8-12)
04
05.88
02
05.26
Agricultural Scientists
40
Extension Personnel
No. of respondents
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
No training
(zero)
Low (1-3)
Medium (4-7)
High (8-12)
Trainnings attended
Fig.5: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of trainings attended
4.1.8
Participation in seminars/conferences/workshops
Participation in seminars/conferences/workshops adds to the knowledge and
comprehension about a subject. The participating person gets to listen and know varied views
about the subject, thus can make better judgement. Thus, such participations add to the
knowledge pool and opinion formation of an individual. For these reasons, this variable was
studied in the present study.
37
The data in table 4.10 shows that majority of agricultural scientists (29.41%) and
extension personnel (63.16%) did not participate in any seminars/conferences/workshops.
This was followed by equal participation (26.47%) in two and more than two seminars/
conferences/workshops by the agricultural scientists, while the extension personnel attended
the same in equal percentages (13.16% each). Thus, it is clear that agricultural scientists
attended more number of trainings in the last five years, than extension personnel.
Table 4.10:
Distribution of the respondents according to their participation in
seminars/ conferences/ workshops during the last two years
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Participation
in numbers
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Nil
20
29.41
24
63.16
One
12
17.65
04
10.52
Two
18
26.47
05
13.16
More than two
18
26.47
05
13.16
Agricultural Scientists
30
No. of respondents
Extension Personnel
25
20
15
10
5
0
Nil
One
Two
More than two
Participation in seminars/conferences/workshops
Fig.6: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of participation in
seminars/conferences/workshops
4.2
Awareness level of climate change and carbon trading
To study the awareness of the respondents regarding carbon trading was one of the
prime objectives of the present investigation. The results obtained after analyzing the
collected data have been presented in this section both as overall awareness level and in
38
seven sub-parts according to categorization based on the sub-topic covered in the
questionnaire.
4.2.1
Overall awareness level regarding climate change and carbon trading
The respondents were distributed into three awareness categories based on actual
score range: low (3-22); medium (23-42); and high (43-60). The data in the table pertaining
to this distribution (4.11), clearly indicates that only 66.18 per cent agricultural scientists got
a score of more than 43 out of maximum score of 60; followed by 20.59 per cent in medium
(23-42) category and rest 13.24 per cent in low (03-22) category. While among the extension
personnel only 13.16 per cent attained a score of more than 43 out of maximum score of 60;
followed by 47.37 per cent in medium (23-42) and a whopping 39.47 per cent in low (03-22)
category.
Table 4.11:
Distribution of the respondents according to their awareness level
regarding climate change, carbon sequestration and carbon trading
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Awareness level
(Score range)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Low (3-22)
09
13.24
15
39.47
Medium (23-42)
14
20.59
18
47.37
High (43-60)
45
66.18
05
13.16
This table clearly indicates that there is lack of awareness among the respondents
regarding carbon trading. This conclusion is in consensus with the result reported by Dietz et
al (2007).
Agricultural Scientists
No. of respondents
60
Extension Personnel
50
40
30
20
10
0
Low (3-22)
Medium (23-42)
Awareness level
High (43-60)
Fig. 7: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of awareness level
39
4.2.2
Overall awareness regarding various aspects of climate change, carbon
sequestration and carbon trading
Based on the awareness level regarding various aspects of climate change, carbon
sequestration and carbon trading, the respondents were categorized into three categories
based on score range: low (≤ 20); medium (21-40) and high (≥41); interesting results were
obtained. The overall awareness level based on such categorization placed majority of the
agricultural scientists at high level with respect to the various aspects related to climate
change, carbon sequestration and carbon trading, except for other aspects related to carbon
trading where medium level of awareness level was found.
Table 4.12:
Distribution of the respondents according to their awareness level
regarding different aspects of climate change, carbon sequestration and
carbon trading
Awareness level
Different aspects
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Low
Medium
High
Low
Medium
High
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
Climate Change and
its implications
01
(01.47)
02
(02.94)
65
(95.59)
04
(10.53)
13
(34.21)
21
(55.26)
Carbon sequestration
and Carbon trading
09
(13.24)
11
(16.18)
48
(70.59)
19
(50.00)
12
(31.58)
07
(18.42)
Forestry activities
10
(14.70)
09
(13.24)
49
(72.06)
11
(28.95)
13
(34.21)
14
(36.84)
Agricultural and allied
activities
16
(23.53)
04
(05.88)
48
(70.59)
14
(36.84)
10
(26.32)
14
(36.84)
Energy activities
09
(13.24)
13
(19.12)
46
(67.65)
13
(34.21)
11
(28.95)
14
(36.84)
Natural resource
management activities
12
(17.65)
13
(19.12)
43
(63.24)
13
(34.21)
06
(15.79)
19
(50.00)
Other aspects of
Carbon Trading
18
(26.47)
26
(38.24)
24
(35.29)
23
(60.53)
14
(36.84)
01
(02.63)
In case of extension personnel majority of them were placed in high level in context
to aspects, viz., climate change and its implications; forestry activities; energy activities; and
natural resource management activities and rest three (carbon sequestration and carbon
trading; agricultural and allied activities; and other aspects of carbon trading) in medium
category. On careful analysis it was found that the overall results are more bent towards
general statements rather than the technical and specific conceptual statements related to the
subject. Taking into consideration, the results obtained, it is emphasized that the technical
40
and conceptual aspects related to carbon trading need prime most concern so that sound
awareness can be created in the subject matter of carbon trading.
4.2.3
Awareness level regarding various aspects related to climate change and carbon
trading
4.2.3.1 Awareness about climate change and its implications
Climate change provides the basic reason for the emergence and existence of carbon
trading. It is only because of felt changes in climatic parameters, that such a global market
and trade came into practice. So studying the awareness about climate change and its
implications on diverse activities was thought to be important enough to be included in the
present investigation. The results obtained are presented in Table 4.13.
Table 4.13: Distribution of the respondents according to their awareness regarding
climate change and its implications*
Statements
Agricultural Scientists
Extension Personnel
(n=68)
(n=38)
A
NA
f (%)
f (%)
Mean
Score
A
NA
f (%)
f (%)
GHE - major cause of global
climate change
68
(100.00)
-
1.00
37
(97.37)
01
(02.63)
0.97
CO2 - major GHG
67
(98.53)
01
(01.47)
0.98
34
(89.47)
04
(10.53)
0.89
CO2 contributes ½ of total
global warming potential of all
GHGs
58
(85.29)
10
(14.71)
0.85
19
(50.00)
19
(50.00)
0.50
All GHGs can be converted into
CO2 equivalents
52
(76.47)
16
(23.53)
0.76
12
(31.58)
26
(68.42)
0.32
Global temperature - expected
to rise by 1.4 to 5.8 0C by 2100
59
(86.76)
09
(13.24)
0.87
19
(50.00)
19
(50.00)
0.50
Agricultural and allied activities
are sinks of GHGs
61
(89.70)
07
(10.29)
0.90
28
(73.68)
10
(26.32)
0.74
Agricultural and allied activities
are sources of GHGs
64
(94.12)
04
(05.88)
0.94
28
(73.68)
10
(26.32)
0.74
Climate
change
implications
Agriculture and
forest production
67
(98.53)
01
(01.47)
0.98
37
(97.37)
01
(02.63)
0.97
Biodiversity
64
(94.12)
04
(05.88)
0.94
33
(86.84)
05
(13.16)
0.87
Sea levels
65
(95.59)
03
(04.41)
0.96
33
(86.84)
05
(13.16)
0.87
Human health
64
(94.12)
04
(05.88)
0.94
30
(78.95)
08
(21.05)
0.79
Coastal
Migration
58
(85.29)
10
(14.71)
0.85
16
(42.11)
22
(57.89)
0.42
Mean score
*A – Aware, NA – Not Aware
0.91
41
Mean
Score
0.72
It is clear from the mean scores (1.00 for agricultural scientists and 0.97 for
extension personnel) in the table 4.13 that all the respondents except one were aware that the
green house effect was the major cause of global climate change. The awareness level among
the agricultural scientists was found to be of high level (mean score ≥ 0.90) for all statements
except for the four statements, i.e., – all GHGs can be converted into CO2 equivalents (0.76),
CO2 contributes about half of the total global warming potential of all GHGs (0.85), the
average global temperature is expected to increase by 1.4 to 5.80C by 2100 (0.87) and
climate change has implications on migration characteristics of coastal people (0.85). These
values also indicate that these statements are contradictory among the scientist community,
while some claim to be in favour, there are others who do not support these statements.
In case of extension personnel the mean scores were found to be low (≤ 0.75) for
most of the statements, except five of the statements, viz., – CO2 is a major GHG (0.89),
climate change has implications on agriculture and forest production (0.97); biodiversity
(0.87); sea levels (0.87) and human health (0.79). This clearly indicates lack of technical
credibility among the extension personnel in the subject of climate change. The scores
indicate that their knowledge matches with the knowledge of the masses, when it comes to
climate change and its implications. Overall, the average awareness level of extension
personnel (0.72) was considerably lower than the agricultural scientists (0.91).
4.2.3.2 Awareness about carbon sequestration
Carbon sequestration is actually what counts in the carbon markets, so while
studying the awareness levels for carbon trading it is indispensable to study the awareness
regarding carbon sequestration. The table 4.14 presents the collected data in this respect.
From the data it can be concluded that majority of the respondents were aware that trees and
plants sequester carbon, with mean scores 0.93 and 0.97 for agricultural scientists and
extension personnel, respectively. Interestingly here, the mean score of extension personnel
is higher than the agricultural scientists, which might be the outcome of lack of consensus
and divergent views among the scientists in relation to the statement. Regarding the response
of extension personnel, this might be the outcome of common sources of information and use
of common platforms to gain information. Apart from this, among the agricultural scientists,
high mean score was observed for the statement – carbon sequestration can combat climate
change (0.90), followed by medium mean score for two statements – carbon sequestration
occurs at geological, oceanic, and terrestrial levels (0.81) and it has ecological benefits (0.82)
and low mean score was observed for two statements – sequestered carbon can be traded in
the carbon markets as carbon credits (0.75) and there are some advanced concepts and
biological approaches for carbon sequestration (0.69). This clearly indicates that there is
good level of awareness regarding carbon sequestration among the agricultural scientists, but
42
the level decreases as we go further into the details and in-depth knowledge about the subject
matter.
Table 4.14: Distribution of the respondents according to their awareness regarding
carbon sequestration*
Statements
Agricultural Scientists(n=68)
A
NA
f (%)
f (%)
Mean
Score
Extension Personnel (n=38)
A
NA
f (%)
f (%)
Mean
Score
Trees and plants
sequester carbon
63(92.65) 05(07.35) 0.93
37(97.37) 01(02.63) 0.97
It can combat climate
change
61(89.70) 07(10.29) 0.90
30(78.95) 08(21.05) 0.79
Occurs at geological,
oceanic and terrestrial
levels
55(80.88) 13(19.12) 0.81
16(42.11) 22(57.89) 0.42
Advanced concepts and
biological approaches
47(69.12) 21(30.88) 0.69
10(26.32) 28(73.68) 0.26
Have ecological benefits. 56(82.35) 12(17.65) 0.82
21(55.26) 17(44.74) 0.55
Sequestered carbon
traded as carbon credits
10(26.32) 28(73.68) 0.26
51(75.00) 17(25.00) 0.75
Mean score
0.82
0.54
*A – Aware, NA – Not Aware
The mean scores for all other statements in the context of extension personnel fall in
the low category (≤ 0.75), this clearly indicates lack of awareness among the extension
personnel regarding carbon sequestration and related aspects. However, a mean score of 0.79
indicates that some of them were aware that the process of carbon sequestration can help to
combat climate change. But, overall the mean scores, both for agricultural scientists (0.82)
and 0.54 for extension personnel, are not very encouraging.
4.2.3.3 Awareness about carbon trading
Carbon trading is a relatively new concept, but has gained centre stage at global
discussions on environment and climate change. Still, it is often observed that the awareness
level regarding carbon trading and global carbon markets is not up-to the required mark.
Although it can play a significant role in combating climate change by incentivizing the
activities that sequester, reduce emissions or replace GHGs, yet the concept has not gained
acceleration in the research institutions and among masses. So, it was felt necessary to study
the awareness level of the agricultural scientists and extension personnel in this regard. The
results obtained have been presented in table 4.15.
43
Table 4.15: Distribution of respondents according to their awareness regarding carbon trading*
Agricultural Scientists(n=68)
Statements
A
NA
f (%)
f (%)
Mean
Score
Extension Personnel(n=38)
A
NA
f (%)
f (%)
Mean
Score
Kyoto protocol is cap-and-trade
protocol
44(64.71) 24(35.29)
0.65
16(42.11) 22(57.89)
0.42
Carbon offsets have economic value
53(77.94) 15(22.06)
0.78
15(39.47) 23(60.53)
0.39
UNFCCC – global framework
55(80.88) 13(19.12)
0.81
15(39.47) 23(60.53)
0.39
EPA monitors atmospheric carbon
concentration
54(79.41) 14(20.59)
0.79
19(50.00) 19(50.00)
0.50
IPCC monitors GHG concentration
and necessary mitigation
55(80.88) 13(19.12)
0.81
12(31.58) 26(68.42)
0.32
CDM is global carbon trading
authority
45(66.18) 23(33.82)
0.66
09(23.68) 29(76.32)
0.24
Voluntary activities
40(58.82) 28(41.18)
0.59
11(28.95) 27(71.05)
0.29
Joint implementation
41(60.29) 27(39.71)
0.60
11(28.95) 27(71.05)
0.29
CERs - generated as carbon credits
44(64.70) 24(35.29)
0.65
11(28.95) 27(71.05)
0.29
TCERs - generated as carbon credits
in forestry
36(52.94) 32(47.06)
0.53
08(21.05) 30(78.95)
0.21
Sustainable management precondition for all CDM activities
43(63.24) 25(36.76)
0.63
15(39.47) 23(60.53)
0.39
In terms of commitment periods for
emission reduction
48(70.59) 20(29.41)
0.70
08(21.05) 30(78.95)
0.21
Has economic and social benefits
53(77.94) 15(22.06)
0.78
17(44.74) 21(55.26)
0.45
Role of private sector and local
communities
53(77.94) 15(22.06)
0.78
14(36.84) 24(63.16)
0.37
CDM projects in India
38(55.88) 30(44.11)
0.56
08(21.05) 30(78.95)
0.21
Voluntary markets in India
24(35.29) 44(64.71)
0.35
08(21.05) 30(78.95)
0.21
Associated risks/barriers
34(50.00) 34(50.00)
0.50
08(21.05) 30(78.95)
0.21
Specific project design and
development process
32(47.06) 36(52.94)
0.47
08(21.05) 30(78.95)
0.21
Forestry definition for CDM projects
36(52.94) 32(47.06)
0.53
10(26.32) 28(73.68)
0.26
Global nature of the above definition
43(63.23) 25(36.77)
0.63
09(23.68) 29(76.32)
0.24
End of first commitment period
under Kyoto protocol in 2012
35(51.47) 33(48.53)
0.51
06(15.79) 32(84.21)
0.16
Mean score
*A – Aware, NA – Not Aware
0.63
44
0.30
Considerably low awareness was observed for statements – there are voluntary
activities under carbon trading (0.59), temporary certified emission reductions (TCERs) are
generated as carbon credits in forestry sector (0.53), clean development mechanism (CDM)
forestry and agricultural projects are operating in India (0.56), there are risks/barriers related
to carbon markets and projects (0.50), forestry definition for CDM projects under United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) include three aspects
minimum area, canopy density and tree height (0.53) and the first commitment period under
Kyoto protocol will end in 2012 (0.51). Also two statements were found to have very low
mean scores – CDM has a specific project design and development process (0.47) and
voluntary markets exist in India (0.35). However, Jindal et al (2007) reported that the
voluntary carbon markets, such as the Chicago Climate Exchange (CCX), were worth $90
million in 2006. They found that that community forestry intervention of three organizations
in India; Seva Mandir, the Foundation for Ecological Security (FES) and the International
Small Group and Tree Planting Program (TIST), is eligible to sell carbon sequestration
credits on CCX. Their combined annual sequestration potential is 104,427 tons of carbon
dioxide (tCO2), worth $417,708 at 2007 prices. This clearly indicates that the agricultural
scientists lag behind when it comes to carbon trading and carbon markets.
Among the extension personnel the highest mean score among all statements was
found to be just 0.50 for the statement that Environment Protection Agency (EPA) monitors
carbon concentration in the atmosphere, while the least score of only 0.16 was observed for
the statement that the first commitment period under Kyoto protocol will end in December,
2012. As many as six statements related to temporary certified emission reductions (TCERs);
commitment periods; risks/barriers; specificity in project design and development; voluntary
markets and clean development mechanism (CDM) projects in India, had a mean score of
0.21. Three statements related to sustainable management as CDM precondition; existence of
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and economic value
of carbon offsets had a mean score of 0.39. Further three statements related to voluntary and
joint implementation activities; and certified emission reductions (CERs) scored 0.29. The
mean score for awareness regarding Kyoto protocol was 0.42; Inter-governmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) it was 0.32; and for CDM it was 0.24. The mean score related to
forestry definition was found to be 0.26 and 0.24 for its global nature. The statement that
carbon trading has economic and social benefits scored 0.45, followed by a mean score of
0.37 for statement related to the role of private sector and local communities.
Overall, the agricultural scientists (0.63) had almost double mean score of awareness
than the extension personnel (0.30). The need of the hour is to consider that carbon trading is
one of the important ways to mitigate climate change. Thus, considerable and quick efforts
45
are required to create awareness regarding carbon trading in order to bring them at par with
the global developments and channelize them with the national policies.
4.2.3.4 Awareness about various activities included in carbon trading
Carbon trading is a complex system, where various activities are included under
different categories. There is no consensus yet on inclusion of agricultural green cover in
carbon trading as such. However, many agricultural activities are included in voluntary
activities under carbon trading and thus are tradable. Similarly, conditions do exist for other
activities as well. Keeping these things in mind, it was thought to be essential to include
these activities in the research instrument to obtain finer results. The information, thus
obtained has been presented in Table 4.16. A perusal of the figures in the table indicates that
in case of agricultural scientists eleven out of total twenty one activities had mean scores in
the medium category (0.75 – 0.90). These activities were agro-forestry/MPTs (0.82); A&R
(0.85); conservation forestry (0.75); nutrient amendments like manures, bio-solids, compost,
etc. (0.75); organic farming (0.81); conservation agriculture (0.78); sustainable bio-fuel
production (0.81); energy efficiency at household and community level (0.75); use of
agricultural residues for biomass energy production (0.76); generation and use of renewable
energy (0.79); and biodiversity conservation (0.75). Rest of the ten statements fell in low
category (≤ 0.75) of mean score of awareness; timber plantation (0.74); recuperation of
barren lands (0.60); cropland, grazing land, peat land and pasture land management (0.65);
livestock (feeding practices) management (0.59); input management (0.70); zero
tillage/residue management (0.74); improved agronomic practices (0.74); integrated food and
energy systems (0.62); water management (including rain water harvesting) (0.59); and soil
management (0.74). On further analysis it was found that the mean score for forestry and
energy activities (0.75 each) was higher than agricultural and allied activities (0.72) followed
by natural resource management activities (0.69).
In case of extension personnel only two activities agro-forestry/MPTs and organic
farming (0.82 each) were among the medium category (0.75 – 0.90) of mean score of
awareness. Rest of the activities came in the low category (≤ 0.75) of mean score of
awareness. The mean scores of these activities are – A&R (0.68); conservation forestry
(0.55); cropland, grazing land, peat land and pasture land management (0.60); input
management (0.63); zero tillage/residue management (0.74); nutrient amendments like
manures, bio-solids, compost, etc. (0.66); improved agronomic practices (0.68);
conservation agriculture (0.66); sustainable bio-fuel production (0.60); energy efficiency at
household and community level (0.53); use of agricultural residues for biomass energy
production (0.68); generation and use of renewable energy (0.60); and biodiversity
conservation (0.60); water management (including rain water harvesting) (0.55); and soil
46
Table 4.16: Distribution of the respondents according to their awareness regarding
various activities included in carbon trading*
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Activities
Extension Personnel (n=38)
A
NA
f (%)
f (%)
Mean
Score
Agro-forests/ Multi
Purpose Trees
56(82.35)
12(17.65)
0.82
31(81.56) 07(18.42)
0.82
A&R
58(85.29)
10(14.71)
0.85
26(68.42) 12(31.58)
0.68
Timber plantation
50(73.53)
18(26.47)
0.74
15(39.47) 23(60.53)
0.39
Conservation forestry
51(75.00)
17(25.00)
0.75
21(55.26) 17(44.74)
0.55
Recuperation of barren
areas
41(60.29)
27(39.71)
0.60
13(34.21) 25(65.79)
0.34
Land management
44(64.70)
24(35.29)
0.65
23(60.53) 15(39.47)
0.60
Livestock management
40(58.82)
28(41.18)
0.59
18(47.37) 20(52.63)
0.47
Input management
48(70.59)
20(29.41)
0.70
24(63.16) 14(36.84)
0.63
Zero Tillage or residue
management
50(73.53)
18(26.47)
0.74
28(73.68) 10(26.32)
0.74
Nutrient amendments
51(75.00)
17(25.00)
0.75
25(65.79) 13(34.21)
0.66
Improved agronomic
practices
50(73.53)
18(26.47)
0.74
26(68.42) 12(31.58)
0.68
Organic farming
55(80.88)
13(19.12)
0.81
31(81.58) 07(18.42)
0.82
Conservation agriculture
53(77.94)
15(22.06)
0.78
25(65.79) 13(34.21)
0.66
Sustainable bio-fuel
production
55(80.88)
13(19.12)
0.81
23(60.53) 15(39.47)
0.60
Energy-efficiency
51(75.00)
17(25.00)
0.75
20(52.63) 18(47.37)
0.53
Integrated Systems
42(61.76)
26(38.24)
0.62
14(36.84) 24(63.16)
0.37
Agricultural residues for
biomass energy
52(76.47)
16(23.53)
0.76
26(68.42) 12(31.58)
0.68
Renewable energy
54(79.41)
14(20.59)
0.79
23(60.53) 15(39.47)
0.60
Water management
40(58.82)
28(41.18)
0.59
21(55.26) 17(44.74)
0.55
Soil management
50(73.53)
18(26.47)
0.74
25(65.79) 13(34.21)
0.66
Biodiversity conservation
51(75.00)
17(25.00)
0.75
23(60.53) 15(39.47)
0.60
Mean score
0.73
*A – Aware, NA – Not Aware
47
A
NA
f (%)
f (%)
0.60
Mean
Score
management (0.66). Four activities - livestock (feeding practices) management (0.47); timber
plantation (0.39); recuperation of barren areas (0.34) and integrated food and energy systems
(0.37); scored even below the mean score 0f 0.50. In contrast to agricultural scientists,
further analysis showed that agricultural and allied activities scored highest (0.66) mean
score value, followed by natural resource management activities (0.60); and forestry and
energy activities (0.56 each).
From these figures it is clear that considerable efforts are required to create
awareness among the respondents regarding these activities in all categories. The average
mean score of awareness for agricultural scientists (0.73) was found to be higher than the
extension personnel (0.60). But both these scores fall in low category (≤ 0.75) of mean score,
thus emphasizing on the fact that awareness regarding the activities included in carbon
trading among the respondents is below the comfort level.
Further comparing the figures in Table 4.15 with those in 4.16, it can be concluded
that awareness level regarding carbon trading and the activities included in carbon trading
both are low, but more dismal results are there for technical and conceptual aspects of carbon
trading than the activities included in carbon trading. Thus, efforts should be concentrated
more on technical up-gradation of respondents with respect to carbon trading.
4.3
Opinion regarding climate change and carbon trading
To assess the opinion of the respondents regarding various aspects of climate change
and carbon trading was the third objective of the present investigation. The opinion regarding
a subject gives valuable insight about the agreement and disagreement of respondents on a
particular topic. For better comprehension the measured overall opinion under the present
investigation is presented in the table 4.17 and the opinion level regarding various aspects of
climate change and carbon trading in the tables 4.18 to 4.20.
4.3.1
Overall opinion level regarding climate change and carbon trading
The respondents were categorized into three opinion levels based on actual score:
low (-01 to 07); medium (08 to 17); and (18 to 24) as presented in table 4.17 below. It is
clear from the data that majority of the agricultural scientists (69.12 per cent) scored in the
medium level, showing weak opinion level; followed by 17.65 per cent in high and 13.23 per
cent in low level. Thus, only 12 out of total 68 agricultural scientists had clear and strong
opinion regarding climate change and carbon trading, which is far below the desired level.
48
Table 4.17: Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion level regarding
climate change and carbon trading
Opinion level
(Score range)
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Frequency (f)
Percentage (%)
Low (-01-07)
09
13.23
21
55.26
Medium (08-17)
47
69.12
17
44.74
High (18-24)
12
17.65
00
00.00
For extension personnel, the majority (55.26 per cent) were found to be in low level.
Interestingly, none of the extension personnel was found in high level of opinion, while
44.74 per cent were found to be in middle level of opinion, showing very weak opinion and
prominence of neutrality in opinion. The opinion level regarding various aspects of climate
change and carbon trading has been discussed in the following sub-parts.
50
Agricultural Scientists
45
Extension Personnel
No. of respondents
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Low (-01-07)
Medium (08-17)
Opinion level
High (18-24)
Fig. 8: Distribution of the respondents on the basis of opinion level
4.3.2
Opinion regarding climate change
Climate change itself is still a controversial topic. While many researchers are in
favour that it is real and is taking place, there are still others who see it as a normal process
which has continued right after the formation of Earth’s atmosphere. Thus, it was felt
necessary to assess the opinion of respondents in the present study, regarding climate change
and its implications on diverse human activities. The results so obtained have been presented
49
in Table 4.18. The table values were analysed for mean score attained out of maximum score
equal to one and it was found that in case of agricultural scientists, the highest mean score
(0.88 each) value was observed for two statements, i.e., agriculture and allied sector is most
vulnerable to climate change and forestry sector can play a vital role in combating climate
change, followed by 0.84 mean score for the statement – climate change is real, global
phenomenon and is already taking place.
Table 4.18: Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion regarding
climate change**
Statement
Opinion
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
A
DA
N
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
Real, global and
already taking place
60
(88.23)
03
(04.42)
05
(07.35)
Consensus is
growing
53
(77.94)
05
(07.35)
Deceptive and much
hyped hoax
17
(25.00)
Gradual
phenomenon
Mean
Score
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Mean
Score
A
DA
N
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
0.84
35
(92.11)
01
(02.63)
02
(05.26)
0.89
10
(14.71)
0.70
19
(50.00)
09
(23.68)
10
(26.32)
0.26
37
(54.41)
14
(20.59)
0.29
02
(05.26)
31
(81.58)
05
(13.16)
0.76
52
(76.47)
06
(08.82)
10
(14.71)
0.68
19
(50.00)
08
(21.05)
11
(28.95)
0.29
No reality, rather a
normal process
03
(04.41)
56
(82.35)
09
(13.24)
0.78
03
(07.89)
35
(92.11)
00
(00.00)
0.84
Agriculture and
allied sectors - most
vulnerable
60
(88.24)
00
(00.00)
08
(11.76)
0.88
32
(84.22)
03
(07.89)
03
(07.89)
0.76
Small and marginal
farmers - most
affected
47
(69.12)
11
(16.18)
10
(14.71)
0.53
15
(39.47)
08
(21.05)
15
(39.48)
0.18
Forestry can play
vital role
62
(91.18)
02
(02.94)
04
(05.88)
0.88
30
(78.95)
03
(07.89)
05
(13.16)
0.71
Mean score
0.70
**A – Agree, DA – Do not agree, N - Neutral
These figures indicate that there is a strong agreement among agricultural scientists
regarding these three statements. Further considerable agreement was observed for the
following statements – there is growing consensus about climate change and its implication
among the scientists and the policy makers (0.70); climate change is a gradual phenomenon
(0.68); and small and marginal farmers are the most affected section due to shifts in climate
50
0.59
(0.53). This indicates that the agricultural scientists in the present study were divided on
these three issues, though the average opinion was bent towards agreement. Strong
disagreement was observed with respect to two statements – climate change is deceptive and
much hyped hoax (0.29) and the negative statement there is no reality in the climate change
phenomenon; rather it is a normal process (0.78).
In case of extension personnel, strong agreement was observed for the statement
climate change is real, global phenomenon and is already taking place (0.89), followed by
considerable agreement for the statements - agriculture and allied sector is most vulnerable to
climate change (0.76) and forestry sector can play a vital role in combating climate change
(0.71). The low scores of the statements - there is growing consensus about climate change
and its implication among the scientists and the policy makers (0.26); climate change is a
gradual phenomenon (0.29); and small and marginal farmers are the most affected section
due to shifts in climate (0.18); can be attributed to majority being neutral with respect to
these statements. Strong disagreement was observed with respect to two statements – climate
change is deceptive and much hyped hoax (0.76) and the negative statement there is no
reality in the climate change phenomenon; rather it is a normal process (0.84); which can be
attributed much to their observations in day-to-day life. Overall, there was agreement among
both agricultural scientists (0.70) and extension personnel (0.59) in relation to climate change
and its implications. However, on most of the occasions extension personnel were found to
be neutral on questions of research aptitude.
4.3.3
Opinion regarding carbon trading
Carbon trading constitutes the central theme of present investigation, hence it was
important to study the opinion of the respondents regarding carbon trading, carbon markets,
carbon projects and various other aspects. The results obtained have been presented in Table
4.19 below. In case of agricultural scientists it was observed that the highest mean score
(0.87) out of the maximum score of one, was calculated for the statement – carbon projects
need careful planning and execution, showing a high degree of agreement. None of the
agricultural scientists was found to be in disagreement with this statement. This was followed
by the statement – carbon projects are complex and tricky, so need technical advice from the
experts (0.75) and three statements with mean score (0.68 each) – carbon sequestration is the
most important way to limit CO2 concentration in the atmosphere; carbon projects have many
additional socio-economic and ecological benefits; and carbon projects have many diverse
components. Three statements were found to score on the margin of agreement and
disagreement – the Kyoto protocol has paved the way for a global (0.56); the trapped carbon
offsets have great economic potential in the carbon markets (0.54); and the CDM constitutes
viable and profitable forestry and agriculture related carbon projects (0.54).
51
Table 4.19: Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion regarding carbon
trading**
Statement
Opinion
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
A
DA
N
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
Kyoto Protocol way for global
carbon market.
41
(60.29)
03
(04.41)
24
(35.29)
Sequestration - most
important - to limit
atmospheric CO2
49
(72.06)
03
(04.41)
Carbon offsets great economic
potential
42
(61.76)
CDM - viable and
profitable carbon
projects in A&F
Mean
Score
Extension Personnel (n=38)
Mean
Score
A
DA
N
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
0.56
11
(28.95)
01
(02.63)
26
(68.42)
0.26
16
(23.53)
0.68
16
(42.11)
03
(07.89)
19
(50.00)
0.34
05
(07.35)
21
(30.89)
0.54
07
(18.42)
04
(10.53)
27
(71.05)
0.08
39
(57.35)
02
(02.94)
27
(39.71)
0.54
16
(42.11)
02
(05.26)
20
(52.63)
0.37
Voluntary market –
also profitable
28
(41.18)
05
(07.35)
35
(51.47)
0.34
08
(21.05)
03
(07.89)
27
(71.05)
0.13
Govt. policies supporting carbon
markets
24
(35.29)
11
(16.18)
33
(48.53)
0.19
11
(28.95)
03
(07.89)
24
(63.16)
0.21
Carbon markets additional income
30
(44.12)
09
13.24)
29
(42.65)
0.31
10
(26.32)
06
(15.79)
22
(57.89)
0.10
Carbon projects –
additional SE and
ecological benefits.
47
(69.12)
01
(01.47)
20
(29.41)
0.68
19
(50.00)
03
(07.89)
16
(42.11)
0.42
Carbon projects careful planning and
execution.
59
(86.76)
00
(00.00)
09
(13.24)
0.87
19
(50.00)
01
(02.63)
18
(47.37)
0.47
Carbon projectscomplex and tricky,
need technical
advice
53
(77.94)
02
(02.94)
13
(19.12)
0.75
17
(44.74)
01
(02.63)
20
(52.63)
0.42
Carbon projects diverse components
47
(69.12)
01
(01.47)
20
(29.41)
0.68
13
(34.21)
00
(00.00)
25
(65.79)
0.34
Mean scores
0.56
**A – Agree, DA – Do not agree, N - Neutral
52
0.28
Among the least scorers, three statements were observed – the voluntary market is
also a profitable venture related to carbon projects (0.34); carbon markets are important
source of additional income to farmers (0.31); and the government policies are supporting the
growth of carbon markets in the country (0.19). However, it should not be concluded from
the above stated figures that the general average opinion (0.56) on carbon trading among the
agricultural scientists was that of disagreement. The low mean scores calculated for the
statements can be attributed to the neutral response given by the respondents rather than
disagreement. Also, it is interesting to note here that all the mean scores calculated for
opinion statements are complimentary with the mean scores calculated for the related
awareness statements, indicating that more neutral response was reported for areas with less
awareness. This is as per the logical expectation and also justifies the fact that the awareness
level regarding carbon trading is low among the selected sample of agricultural scientists.
In the case of extension agents, the results were again consistent with those obtained
in context of their awareness level. The disappointment continued further, when none of the
tested statements could attain a mean score ≥ 0.50, highest being just 0.47 for the statement
carbon projects need careful planning and execution.
On further analyzing the table values it was observed that two statements scored a
mean score of 0.42 each - carbon projects are complex and tricky, so need technical advice
from the experts and carbon projects have many additional socio-economic and ecological
benefits, followed by CDM constitutes viable and profitable forestry and agriculture related
carbon projects (0.37); than by two statements with a mean score of 0.34 each - carbon
sequestration is the most important way to limit CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and
carbon projects have many diverse components. Among the least scorers were - the Kyoto
protocol has paved the way for a global carbon market (0.26); the government policies are
supporting the growth of carbon markets in the country (0.21); the voluntary market is also a
profitable venture related to carbon projects (0.13); carbon markets are important source of
additional income to farmers (0.10); and the trapped carbon offsets have great economic
potential in the carbon markets (0.08). The average mean score was calculated to be just
0.28. Similar to the situation in case of agricultural scientists, it should not be concluded
from the above stated figures that the general opinion on carbon trading among the extension
personnel was that of disagreement. The low mean scores calculated for the statements can
be attributed to the neutral response given by the respondents rather than disagreement. The
mean scores were found in agreement with the mean scores calculated for the related
awareness statements, indicating that more neutral response was reported for areas with less
awareness. This is as per the logical expectation and also justifies the fact that the awareness
53
level regarding carbon trading is almost negligible among the selected sample of extension
personnel.
4.3.4
Opinion regarding the potential of carbon trading
It was thought to be important to study the opinion of the respondents regarding the
potential of carbon trading in the country. This can provide useful insights about the
expectations among the respondents in context of carbon trading. Thus, this aspect of carbon
trading was also put forward for test of opinion in the form of statements. The results
obtained were tabulated and mean scores were calculated as presented in table 4.20 below.
From the data, it was observed that with respect to agricultural scientists, the highest mean
score (0.70) out of maximum score of one, was calculated for the statement – carbon trading
can help to achieve the goals of sustainable agriculture and to combat climate change;
followed by 0.69 for the statement – India has a huge potential to lead in the global carbon
market; 0.66 for the statement - public-private collaboration can enhance the success rate of
carbon projects in India; and 0.59 for the statement – local communities have a great role to
play in the success of carbon projects. Among the least scores were the statements – carbon
trading has no benefit/advantage for Indian farmers (0.41); Punjab can emerge as a major
carbon market in the coming time (0.26); and carbon trading has an uncertain future (0.15).
The interesting revelation of these figures is that a considerable degree of agreement was
found for the potential of carbon trading in combating climate change and sustaining
agriculture. While the opinion was bent more towards agreement for topics which are mostly
general in nature and propagated, in general, through different mass media sources during
discussions in relation to carbon trading in Indian context like role of PPP model and local
participation in success of carbon projects. During the careful analysis of the least scoring
statements, it was found that there was considerable opinion of both disagreement and
neutrality for two negative statements - carbon trading has no benefit/advantage for Indian
farmers (36 respondents in disagreement, 24 being neutral) and carbon trading has an
uncertain future (21 respondents in disagreement, 36 being neutral). While for the statement Punjab can emerge as a major carbon market in the coming time more neutrality (32
respondents being neutral, 09 in disagreement) is the reason for the low mean score.
In case of extension personnel, it is interesting to note here that for all the above statements
related to potential of carbon trading received a neutral response from the majority of the
respondents, showing their lack of awareness in the subject. Further, none of the statements
could score ≥ 0.50, testifying lack of awareness once again. The highest mean score (0.42)
out of maximum score of one was observed for the statement - public-private collaboration
can enhance the success rate of carbon projects in India; followed by India has a huge
potential to lead in the global carbon market (0.32); local communities have a great role to
54
play in the success of carbon projects (0.26); and carbon trading can help to achieve the goals
of sustainable agriculture and to combat climate change (0.24). Among the least scores were
again the same statements as in the case of agricultural scientists – carbon trading has no
benefit/advantage for Indian farmers (0.18); Punjab can emerge as a major carbon market in
the coming time (0.18); and carbon trading has an uncertain future (0.03). It was observed
that a high degree of neutrality lead to such low scores for these statements. For the two
negative statements - carbon trading has no benefit/advantage for Indian farmers, 23 neutral
and 11 disagreeing respondents were found; and carbon trading has an uncertain future, 27
neutral and six disagreeing respondents were found; while for the statement - Punjab can
emerge as a major carbon market in the coming time, 23 neutral and four disagreeing
respondents were found. The results clearly indicate the presence of weak opinion among the
extension personnel regarding the potential of carbon markets in the country. The average of
mean scores (0.23) further confirms this weakness and justifies the bent towards neutrality in
opinion.
Table 4.20: Distribution of the respondents according to their opinion regarding
potential of carbon trading**
Opinion
Statement
Agricultural Scientists (n=68)
A
DA
N
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
Huge potential in
India
50
(73.53)
03
(04.41)
15
(22.06)
Punjab as major
future carbon
market
27
(39.71)
09
(13.24)
Local communities
- great role
43
(63.24)
PPP - enhance
success rate
Extension Personnel (n=38)
A
DA
N
f (%)
f (%)
f (%)
0.69
14
(36.84)
02
(05.26)
22
(57.90)
0.32
32
(47.06)
0.26
11
(28.95)
04
(10.53)
23
(60.52)
0.18
03
(04.41)
22
(32.35)
0.59
14
(36.84)
04
(10.53)
20
(52.63)
0.26
49
(72.06)
04
(05.88)
15
(22.06)
0.66
17
(44.74)
01
(02.63)
20
(52.63)
0.42
Has uncertain
future
11
(16.18)
21
(30.88)
36
(52.94)
0.15
05
(13.16)
06
(15.79)
27
(71.05)
0.03
Helpful to sustain
agriculture; combat
climate change
50
(73.53)
02
(02.94)
16
(23.53)
0.70
13
(34.21)
04
(10.53)
21
(55.26)
0.24
No benefits for
Indian farmers
08
(11.76)
36
(52.94)
24
(35.30)
0.41
04
(10.53)
11
(28.95)
23
(60.52)
0.18
Mean
Score
Mean score
0.49
**A – Agree, DA – Do not agree, N - Neutral
55
Mean
Score
0.23
From these results in tables (4.17 to 4.20) regarding the opinion of respondents are
fund to be in strong agreement with the results obtained in tables (4.11 to 4.16) regarding the
awareness of respondents. From these results, it is therefore concluded that the awareness
level of the extension personnel is lower than the agricultural scientists. But the agricultural
scientists also lack in-depth and conceptual knowledge about the subject under study.
4.4
Relationship and association of socio-personal characteristics of the respondents
with the awareness level of climate change and carbon trading
4.4.1
Relationship of socio-personal characteristics of the respondents with the
awareness level
Relationship between two variables is an important point in results obtained. It
provides clarification about the independent variables, which have significant correlation
with the dependent variable under investigation. In the present study, the Karl Pearson
correlation coefficient (r) was employed to study the relationship of independent variables,
viz., socio-personal characteristics (age and service experience) and communication
characteristic (mass media usage) of the respondents with the dependent variable, i.e., their
awareness level of climate change and carbon trading, with 95 per cent confidence interval.
The results so obtained are presented in the form of table 4.21 below.
Table 4.21: Relationship of socio-personal characteristics of the respondents with their
awareness level
Socio-personal characteristics
Correlation coefficient (r)
Agricultural Scientists
(n=68)
Extension Personnel
(n=38)
Age
0.434*
0.020NS
Service Experience
0.262NS
0.016NS
Mass media usage
0.155NS
0.213NS
* Significant at 5 per cent level
4.4.1.1 Age and awareness level
It is clear from the table 4.21 that the age of agricultural scientists was found to have
significant and positive correlation with the awareness level at 5 per cent level of
significance. However, non-significant correlation was observed between age and awareness
level of extension personnel. This might be due to the reason that many senior scientists had
attended more number of seminars/conferences/workshops, both at national and international
levels and were found to be working or associated with related projects while no such
distinction was observed for the extension personnel.
56
4.4.1.2 Service experience and awareness level
Non significant correlation between service experience and awareness level was
observed, at 5 per cent level of significance for both agricultural scientists and extension
personnel. This conclusion can be attributed to the relative novelty of the subject.
4.4.1.3 Mass media usage and awareness level
From Table 4.21, it is clear that there was no significant correlation between mass
media usage and awareness level, at 5 per cent level of significance, for both agricultural
scientists and extension personnel. The possible reason can be non-availability of sufficient
literature or less frequent discussions in mass media, related to the subject.
4.4.2
Association of socio-personal characteristics of the respondents with the
awareness level
Association of socio-personal characteristics of the respondents with the awareness
level of climate change and carbon trading was calculated using the Chi-square test. This test
indicates the degree of dependence between the studied attributes. Since, it cannot be put to
use when sample size, n ≤ 50, so the test was used only in context to agricultural scientists.
The results so obtained have been recorded in Table 4.22 below.
4.4.2.1 Gender and awareness level
From the table value it is clear that gender and awareness level of the agricultural
scientists regarding climate change and carbon trading were independent of each other. This
result is in line with the logical expectation in case of the association between these two
variables.
4.4.2.2 Qualification and awareness level
It is evident from the table that no significant association was observed between the
qualification and awareness level of the agricultural scientists regarding climate change and
carbon trading. This can be attributed to the fact that majority of the respondents had equal
qualification (92.65 per cent doctorates).
4.4.2.3 Designation and awareness level
No significant association was observed between the designation and awareness
level of agricultural scientists regarding climate change and carbon trading. This can again be
attributed to the relative novelty of the subject, and hence has no linkage with the designation
of the respondents.
4.4.2.4 Number of trainings attended and awareness level
It was observed that there was no significant association between the number of
trainings attended and awareness level of agricultural scientists regarding climate change and
57
carbon trading. But on careful analysis of data it was observed that trainings attended in the
area of carbon trading were almost negligible, though there were trainings on the issues
related to climate change. This result clearly indicates lack of trainings on the subject of
carbon trading.
Table 4.22: Association of socio-personal characteristics of the agricultural scientists,
with the awareness score of carbon trading and its aspects (n=68)
Socio-personal
characteristics
Category
Awareness score
Low
Medium
High
Gender
Male
05
11
37
(df=2)
Female
03
03
09
Qualification
(df=2)
Masters’
00
01
04
Doctorate
07
13
43
Designation
(df=4)
Assistant Professor/
Equivalent
01
04
07
Associate Professor/
Equivalent
05
06
19
Professor/ Equivalent
01
05
20
Low (No training)
04
06
13
Medium (1-3)
03
07
25
High(>3)
00
02
08
No participation
04
02
12
One participation
02
04
05
Two or more
participations
03
08
28
Number of trainings
attended
(df=4)
Participation in
Conferences/
Workshops/ Seminars
etc.
(df=4)
Chi-square
value
2.4NS
2.9NS
5.62NS
4.38NS
9.54*
* Significant at 5 per cent level
4.4.2.5 Participation in seminars/conferences/workshops and awareness level
From the chi-square value calculated for participation in seminars/conferences/
workshops and awareness level of agricultural scientists regarding climate change and
carbon trading, it was found that the two variables have significant association. Since,
participation at different forums like seminars/conferences/workshops leads to greater
horizontal and vertical interaction and sharing of ideas, this association is justified. Further,
many of the burning issues like carbon trading are discussed at such platforms, influencing
the awareness level of participants.
58
4.5
Constraints faced in relation to carbon trading and carbon projects
Constraints are the bottlenecks that affect the success of any event. Since carbon
trading is a novel idea and has not gain wide recognition among agricultural scientists and
masses in India, it was felt necessary to study the reasons behind this fact and identify the
constraints faced, to assist better policy initiatives on the subject. The response was than
tabulated and studied using frequency and percentages under two sub-heads discussed below.
4.5.1
Constraints faced by the agricultural scientists and extension personnel
The constraints faced by the agricultural scientists and extension personnel in
relation to carbon trading and carbon projects reported by the respondents under the present
study are reported in Table 4.23 given below.
Table 4.23: Constraints faced by agricultural scientists and extension personnel
related to carbontrading and carbon projects
(n=106, Multiple response)
Sr.No.
Constraints
f
%
1.
Lack of knowledge about the concept
45
36.29
2.
Lack of funds for research and projects
13
10.48
3.
Lack of training in the field
27
21.77
4.
Lack of institutional efforts in capacity building (staff and
facilities)
13
10.48
5.
Lack of co-ordination among stakeholders at national and global
level
07
05.64
6.
Lack of initiative and learning attitude
05
04.03
7.
Lack of clear methodologies; reliable data and literature
05
04.03
8.
Exclusion of agricultural green cover from carbon projects
01
00.81
9.
Clash between agricultural production targets and emission
reduction targets
01
00.81
10.
No independent governing body in the field
06
04.85
11.
More thrust on short-term, tangible benefits in the policies
01
00.81
Total
124
100.00
It was concluded that lack of knowledge about the concept (36.29%) is the most
frequently stated constraint; followed by lack of training facilities (21.77%) in context to
carbon trading. Lack of institutional efforts in capacity building (staff and facilities) and lack
of funds for research and carbon projects (10.48% each) were another prominent constraints
faced. This was followed by constraints like lack of co-ordination among stakeholders at
59
national and global level (05.64%), no independent governing body for carbon trading,
carbon market and the related projects (04.85%), lack of initiative and learning attitude
(04.03%), lack of clear methodologies; reliable data and literature on carbon trading and
related concepts (04.03%).
Other constraints reported included clash between agricultural production targets and
emission reduction targets; more thrust on short-term, tangible benefits in the policies; rather
than sustainable and intangible benefits and exclusion of agricultural green cover from
carbon projects, particularly with respect to Punjab state (0.81% each).
4.5.2
Perceived constraints by the respondents for the farmers and forest land
owners
The respondents were also asked to mention the constraints for the farmers and
forest land owners related to carbon trading and carbon projects, as perceived by them. The
reported constraints have been tabulated in the form of table 4.24 below. However, it should
be noted here that these constraints have not been stated by the stakeholders themselves;
rather they are the perceptions made by the respondents under the present investigation.
Table 4.24: Perceived constraints by the respondents for the farmers and forest land
owners related to carbon trading and carbon projects
(n=106, multiple response)
Sr.No.
Constraints
f
%
1.
Lack of awareness about the concept
41
46.59
2.
Lack of training in the field
07
07.95
3.
Financial constraints
09
10.23
4.
Small land-holdings
03
03.41
5.
Technological backwardness
03
03.41
6.
Lack of concern for environment and commitment
07
07.95
7.
Lack of encouragement to participate in carbon projects
06
06.82
8.
Lack of co-ordination among farmers
02
02.27
9.
Long gestation period of forestry projects
05
05.68
10.
Management constraints (weeds, poaching, etc.)
03
03.41
11.
Less area under forests in Punjab
01
01.14
12.
Rigid forest laws
01
01.14
88
100.00
Total
60
It is evident from the above table that the most frequently (46.59%) perceived
constraint for the farmers and forest land owners, as reported by the respondents was lack of
awareness about the concept of carbon trading; followed by financial constraints like cost of
registration of carbon projects (10.23%); lack of concern for environment and commitment
among the stakeholders and lack of adequate training in the field of carbon trading (07.95%
each). Further, lack of encouragement to participate in carbon projects (06.82%); long
gestation period of forestry projects and therefore delayed economic returns (05.68%);
management constraints like weeds particularly Lantana camara competing with forest plant
species, poaching, human interference etc.; technological backwardness of stakeholders; and
small sized land-holdings (03.41% each). Other perceived constraints included lack of coordination among stakeholders, both with the extension personnel and in between themselves
(02.27); less area under forests in Punjab and rigid forest legislations (01.14% each).
4.6
Suggestions to overcome the constraints
Often the source of disease provides the way for the best cure. Keeping this saying in
mind, the respondents were asked to give suggestions to overcome the constraints related to
carbon trading and carbon projects faced by scientists, extension personnel, farmers and
forest land owners. The suggestions have been tabulated as table 4.25 and analysed using
frequencies and percentages.
The values in Table 4.25 indicate that among various suggestions, creation of
awareness on carbon trading and related concepts using various mass media sources was
suggested by most of the respondents (21.85%); followed by adequate training (15.97%) in
the field to all stakeholders (agricultural scientists, extension personnel, farmers and forest
land owners); proactive and strict role of government in implementation of formulated
policies (13.44%); liberal and adequate funding (10.08%) for research on carbon trading and
carbon projects; simplification of development and registration process for carbon projects
(07.56%). Other suggestions included adequate capacity building in manpower and
infrastructure by the related institutions; strengthening of the national and global linkages
between all the stakeholders; and group and co-operative action on the part of farmers and
forest land owners (05.04% each). The respondents also stated that there should be adequate
promotion of viable alternatives (04.20%) to reduce GHG emissions like conservation
agriculture, solar power, bio-fuels etc. Encouragement to public-private partnership (PPP)
model of growth in the field of carbon trading (02.52); motivation need to increased among
the stakeholders and they should be encouraged to participate actively in carbon trading and
related issues; consensus building at global level i.e., among developed, developing and
under developed nations on the issue of emission GHG reduction (01.69% each); increased
61
role of Environment Protection Agency, wider from its present role; development of areaspecific projects; and assured marketing after completion of project period (0.01% each)
were some other suggestions given by the respondents.
Table 4.25: Suggestions to overcome the constraints related to carbon trading and
carbon projects
(n=106, Multiple response)
Sr.No.
Suggestions
f
%
1.
Awareness using various mass-media components need to be
created
26
21.85
2.
Training in the field need to be imparted
19
15.97
3.
Proactive and strict implementation of government policies
16
13.44
4.
Liberal funding for research and projects
12
10.08
5.
Simplification of development and registration processes of carbon
projects
09
07.56
6.
Capacity building (manpower and infrastructure)
06
05.04
7.
Strengthening of linkages between stakeholders, at both national
and global level
06
05.04
8.
Group action by farmers and forest land owners
06
05.04
9.
Viable alternatives (conservation agriculture, solar power, bio-fuels
etc.) need to be promoted
05
04.20
10.
Upgraded literature should be made available
04
03.36
11.
Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) need to be encouraged
03
02.52
12.
Motivation among stakeholders should be increased
02
01.69
13.
Consensus building at global level
02
01.69
14.
Role of Environment Protection Agency need to widened
01
00.84
15.
Development of area-specific projects
01
00.84
16.
Assured marketing
01
00.84
Total
4.7
119 100.00
Booklet “Carbon Trading Possibilities in Agriculture and Forestry Sector”
From the findings of the present study, it was concluded that the respondents lack
competent knowledge about the concept of carbon trading. Although, Punjab has
considerable potential in the global carbon market, but as such there are no registered carbon
projects in agriculture or forestry sector. This can be attributed to the lack of knowledge and
62
exposure of the people to carbon trading. The results obtained in the present study revealed
that the respondents under the present study i.e., the agricultural scientists and extension
personnel, lack technical competence on the subject. Thus, the need was felt to prepare a
concise document with preliminary idea about carbon trading and its possibilities in
agriculture and forestry sector. Since, Punjab has maximum land area under agricultural
crops and considerable agro-forestry land systems, so it presents a strong thrust area for
carbon trading. Keeping all these factors and the results of the present investigation the
booklet entitled “Carbon Trading Possibilities in Agriculture and Forestry Sector” was
prepared to assess various stakeholders – agricultural scientists, extension personnel, farmers
and forest land owners.
4.8
Extension strategy
Agricultural extension services are the linkage between researchers’ laboratory and
the farmers’ field. It is the prime duty of extension personnel to strengthen this linkage. Thus,
whenever a new technology or economic opportunity is seen, they should gain technical
credibility in the field and use their competence, so as to make it profitable for the
practitioners of agriculture. Thus, based on the present study the major extension strategies
which can be taken to bring carbon trading in the main stream line of action have been
discussed below:

Since the issue of GHG emission reduction is very sensitive because of direct clash
between growth initiatives and ecological fragility, there is a need to develop interdependent action strategies to create a win-win situation for all the parties involved.
This requires commonness in aims and aspirations of all the related stakeholders and
collective action on their part.

The scientific community needs to form strong collaboration among themselves with
respect to sharing of ideas, global developments and policy initiatives. Since, the
developments related to carbon trading are quick and complex, so only a well knitted
system can be sustained.

There is need to form a considerably independent national forum and organization to
deal specifically with the issues related to carbon trading. This will channelize the
course of action in single line throughout the country. Such a body can also place the
scientific community in close contact with national policy makers and positively add to
the discussions at international forums.

The first step in popularization is creating awareness among the farmers and forest land
owners by using mass media like radio, farm literature, newspapers, local media etc.
and supplemented by personal contact. However, to achieve these goals extension
personnel need to upgrade themselves first, so as to pace with the global developments.
63

Adaptation to the changing conditions holds the key for the future survival. So research
and extension activities should be targeted to formulate effective adaptation measures in
the ever-growing and unpredictable climate statistics. Adaptation to the physical
conditions, economic/market variations and social developments are important
especially when Indian agriculture has entered the era of globalization.

Sensitization campaign for judicious use of natural/community resources, so as to
increase moral acceptance of conservation activities included in carbon trading.

Promotion of cooperatives and group farming for management of inputs and sale of
final product in carbon markets.

Development of extension literature on carbon trading and regular up-gradation.

Innovative and area-specific projects, which are in consent with the local needs and
social aspirations, should be prioritized and local communities should be involved in the
projects in theory and practice right from the conceptualization of the project idea to its
termination.
64
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY
Climate is one of the essential and profoundly influential factors, which influences
life everyday and in multi-faceted ways. It is essential not only for sustenance of food
production, livestock, natural resources and sound health, but also for sustaining sociocultural systems and their well-being. Thus, any kind of natural or human-induced alterations
in climate is a matter of grave concern. The melting of glaciers, sea-level rise, submergence
of coastal areas, erratic rainfall patterns, increasing temperatures, increased intensity of
natural disasters, are among the few changes, felt world over. And so, climate change is the
single most important and most frequently discussed global phenomenon. There is no bigger
environmental challenge in the world today than how people respond to the scientific
evidence that the climate is warming – for which more or less, the human race is responsible.
Climate change is not just an environmental issue – it is an economic issue, a social issue, a
security issue, and, above all, a moral issue.
The contribution of anthropogenic factors in global climate change has been studied
and proved by various scientists. The increased levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) like
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxides (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
beyond their natural levels due to the uncontrolled human activities such as burning of fossil
fuels, increased use of refrigerants, and enhanced agricultural activities are the major reasons
behind climate change. To slow down climate change impacts, the emissions of GHGs need
to be reduced immediately. There are several agricultural and forestry activities that
contribute to GHG emissions. Changing these and switching to new sustainable land
management practices can support the uptake and the reduction of GHGs. Some agricultural
activities can increase the amount of organic matter and carbon in the soil by using cover
crops or reduce the emissions of methane through improving feeding practices. Sustainable
forest management can avoid the destruction of forests and the release of CO2, and planting
new trees sequesters more CO2. However, there is huge gap in the ecological sensitivity and
conscientiousness present among people and what is actually required today. This is the
major hindrance in implementation of policies like lowered consumerism, life style changes,
etc. based on scientific evidence in relation to climate change. Ironically, this is also true that
people and nations who contribute the least to the GHG emissions are bound to be affected
the most in the changing global climate. Thus, the developed nations with strong technical
and financial resources to tackle any adversity, never really were bothered regarding the
climate change issue.
But now, with the growing realization of these facts; growing presence of developing
and under-developed nations at United Nations Organisation; and the U-turn in global polity
from military might to relatively greater soft power influence; there is increased pressure on
developed nations to reduce their GHG emissions in global interest. Since, it was thought to
be practically impossible to reverse the changes in climate and also the life styles, the focus
shifted to adaptation and mitigation opportunities. Thus, both agriculture and forestry are
now at the centre stage of global climate change negotiations because they have the potential
to be a sink of carbon emissions. They can help in mitigation and adaptation to the changing
world and the developing and under-developed world has maximum of them. But, why these
nations should put their economic growth on slow track to pay for the developed nations was
the central question. And now, one of the hottest topics in climate change negotiations is
carbon trading of sequestered carbon dioxide at global market and thus generate carbon
credits. The important point here is that sustainable development and poverty alleviation are
the pre-requisites for any such activity. Thus, it presents a strong case for economically and
socially viable action against the vagaries of climate change
The Kyoto Protocol has entered into force on 16th February 2005 and thus, carbon
sequestration and storage has eventually become a true global commodity, with fully
interchangeable products. The carbon or greenhouse gas (GHG) market is at the turning point
from being a niche market to become a market at global scale. Carbon stored in biomass
through sequestration, conservation or substitution measures has become a real asset that can
generate additional incomes for forestry dependent communities and the rural poor in
developing countries. Carbon sequestration or conservation activities are eligible for
voluntary, non-Kyoto compliant schemes. However, the major international and national
mechanisms are not yet fully implemented in all participating countries and intermediary
institutions need to be developed. Significant barriers at the local project level should be
addressed and supportive framework conditions at the national, regional and international
levels need to be created. This will empower forest-dependent and rural communities that
depend on the land use and forestry sector to participate in the global greenhouse gas
markets. Agricultural extension and advisory services, both public and private, thus have a
major role to play in providing farmers with information, technologies, and education on
how to cope with climate change and ways to contribute to GHG mitigation. This support is
especially important for resource-scarce smallholders, who contribute little to climate change
and yet will be among the most affected. But due to lack of awareness and support from the
extension agencies they are unable to improve their livelihoods and reap benefits and
financial returns that can be delivered by land-use, land-use change, forestry projects and
agricultural practices, aiming at climate change mitigation.
. India being a developing, but aspiring nation is among the best destinations for these
activities. However, our response to this opportunity will depend to a large extent on our own
66
preparedness and ability to bring benefits to ourselves. Technology and finance are the major
constraints our country face, while the growth plan is put on a sustainable and environment
friendly trajectory. The carbon markets present us with both. We need elaborate research
results on the potential of our forest and farmland resources on the one hand, and extensive,
area specific policies in consensus with the global developments on the other. Many
communities of our country are already adapting and mitigating the impacts of climate
change, using the indigenous technical knowledge. And adaptation holds the only key for
survival in the coming time, so all we need is to identify them, present them in the form
acceptable at the global carbon markets and help the communities reap the economic
benefits, they deserve so rightfully. Thus, it is of utmost importance to study the
preparedness of our scientists and extension agents in this area. The awareness and opinion
of the agricultural scientists and extension personnel will shape the participation of Indian
farming and forestry community at the global stage. Hence, this study “Awareness and
opinion of agricultural scientists and extension personnel regarding carbon trading” was
undertaken with the following specific objectives.
5.1
Objectives of the study:
5.1.1
To study the socio-personal profile of agricultural scientists and extension personnel.
5.1.2
To study the awareness level of agricultural scientists and extension personnel about
carbon trade.
5.1.3
To assess the opinion of the agricultural scientists and extension personnel about the
role of carbon trading in mitigating climate change in agriculture.
5.1.4
To prepare a booklet on carbon trading.
5.2
Research Methodology:
Agricultural Scientists of Punjab Agricultural University and the extension personnel
of the State Department of Agriculture and Horticulture, Ludhiana district were selected for
the purpose of the present study. From PAU, six departments from the College of Agriculture
and one department each from the College of Basic Sciences and Humanities and College of
Agricultural Engineering, were selected. Thus, a total sample of eight departments was
purposively selected, keeping in view the research topic. From these selected eight
departments, a sample of 80 agricultural scientists was taken, following probability
proportional to the total number of scientists working in each department. Another sample of
40 extension personnel was selected from the State Department of Agriculture and
Horticulture, by following probability proportional to the total number of extension
personnel working in Ludhiana district of Punjab state. Thus, a final sample of 120
respondents was selected for conducting the present study.
67
The research instrument was pre-tested on 20 non-sampled respondents from PAU,
Ludhiana. The data were collected from the respondents with the help of distributed
questionnaire approach. The awareness and opinion was studied using the response on
statements based on climate change and carbon trading. The respondents were distributed in
three categories of awareness level based on score range: low (≤ 20); medium (21-40) and
high (≥41); and three categories of opinion level based on actual score: low (-01 to 07);
medium (08 to 17); and (18 to 24). Further, the relationship was determined among the
independent and the dependent variables, zero order correlation coefficients were worked out
with continuous data and chi-square test was applied to the discrete data. The data were
analysed with the help of appropriate statistical tools such as frequencies, percentage, mean
scores, cumulative cube root method, correlation coefficient and chi-square test.
A booklet titled “Carbon Trading possibilities in Agriculture and Forestry” was also prepared
with the help of experts and with the primary aim of creating awareness on the issue of
carbon trading among the masses.
5.3
Salient Research Findings
The salient findings of the study have been given under the following headings:
5.3.1
Socio-personal characteristics of the respondents
The age of the respondents varied from 25-62 years. Most of the agricultural
scientists (56.92%) belonged to the age group of 38-50 years and 77.94 per cent of
agricultural scientists were male. In case of extension personnel, the majority (50.00%)
belonged to the age group of 51-62 years and 92.11% of them were male. The relatively
higher proportion of agricultural scientists was doctorate (92.65%), while majority (63.16%)
of extension personnel was graduates. The majority of agricultural scientists were found to
be associate professors (44.12%), closely followed by professors (38.23%) where as majority
(63.16%) of extension personnel were ADOs. Nearly 65 per cent of the agricultural scientists
and 47.37 per cent of extension personnel had service experience between 13-26 years. The
mass media usage among majority (51.47%) of the agricultural scientists and extension
personnel (42.10%) was observed to be o medium (9-14) level when categorized on the basis
of mass media scores. In case of trainings attended in the last five years it was found that
majority (52.94%) of agricultural scientists belonged to low (1-3) category and majority of
the extension personnel (47.37%) attended no training in the last five years. Majority of the
agricultural scientists (29.41%) and extension personnel (69.16%) did not participate in any
conference/workshop/seminar in the last two years.
5.3.2
Awareness of the respondents regarding climate change and carbon trading
The respondents were distributed according to awareness level regarding various
aspects of climate change, carbon sequestration and carbon trading into three categories
68
based on score range: low (≤ 20); medium (21-40) and high (≥41); interesting results were
obtained. The overall awareness level based on such categorization placed majority of the
agricultural scientists at high level with respect to the various aspects related to climate
change (95.59%), carbon sequestration and carbon trading (70.59%), except for other aspects
related to carbon trading (38.24%), where medium level of awareness level was found. And
in case of extension personnel majority were divided into two main categories –climate
change and its implications (55.26%) in high level and rest two carbon sequestration and
carbon trading (50.00%); and other aspects of carbon trading (60.53%) in medium category.
Further the respondents were distributed into three awareness categories based on actual
score range: low (3-22); medium (23-42); and high (43-60); the results clearly indicated that
only 66.18 per cent agricultural scientists could get a score ≥ 43 out of maximum score of 60;
followed by 20.59 per cent in medium (23-42) category and rest 13.24 per cent in low (0322) category. While among extension personnel only 13.16 per cent could attain a score ≥ 43
out of maximum score of 60; followed by 47.37 per cent in medium (23-42) and a whopping
39.47 per cent in low (03-22) category.
5.3.3
Opinion of the respondents regarding climate change and carbon trading
The respondents were categorized into three opinion levels based on actual score:
low (-01 to 07); medium (08 to 17); and (18 to 24), majority of the agricultural scientists
(69.12 per cent) scored in the medium level, showing weak opinion level; followed by 17.65
per cent in high and 13.23 per cent in low level. Thus, only 12 out of total 68 agricultural
scientists had clear and strong opinion regarding climate change and carbon trading, which is
a far below the desired level.
For extension personnel, as expected the majority (55.26 per cent) of them were observed in
the low level. Interestingly, none of the extension personnel was found in high level of
opinion, while 44.74 per cent were found to be in middle level of opinion, showing very
weak opinion and prominence of neutrality in opinion. It is concluded that the awareness
level of the extension personnel is lower than the agricultural scientists, but the agricultural
scientists also lack in-depth and conceptual knowledge about the subject under study.
5.3.4
Relationship of socio-personal characteristics of the respondents with the
knowledge of ICT
Age, service experience and mass media usage were tested for their correlation with
awareness level and it was concluded that all of them, except age of agricultural scientists,
had no significant correlation with the awareness level of respondents, both agricultural
scientists and extension personnel, at 5 per cent level of significance.
Among the other characteristics; gender, qualification, designation, number of trainings
attended and participation in conferences/workshops/seminars etc., only the association of
69
participation with awareness level was found to be significant, at 5 per cent level of
significance for the agricultural scientists.
5.3.5
Constraints faced by the respondents related to carbon trading and carbon
projects
Lack of knowledge about the concept (36.29%) is the most frequently stated
constraint; followed by lack of training facilities (21.77%) in context to carbon trading. Lack
of institutional efforts in capacity building (staff and facilities) and lack of funds for research
and carbon projects (10.48% each) were another prominent constraints faced. This was
followed by constraints like lack of co-ordination among stakeholders at national and global
level (05.64%), no independent governing body for carbon trading, carbon market and the
related projects (04.85%), lack of initiative and learning attitude (04.03%), lack of clear
methodologies; reliable data and literature on carbon trading and related concepts (04.03%).
Other constraints reported included clash between agricultural production targets and
emission reduction targets; more thrust on short-term, tangible benefits in the policies; rather
than sustainable and intangible benefits and exclusion of agricultural green cover from
carbon projects, particularly with respect to Punjab state (0.81% each).
5.3.6
Perceived constraints of the farmers and forest land owners
The respondents were also asked to mention the constraints faced by the farmers and
forest land owners related to carbon trading and carbon projects, as perceived by them. The
most frequently (46.59%) perceived constraint faced by the farmers and forest land owners,
as reported by the respondents was lack of awareness about the concept of carbon trading;
followed by financial constraints faced like cost of registration of carbon projects (10.23%);
lack of concern for environment and commitment among the stakeholders and lack of
adequate training in the field of carbon trading (07.95% each). Further, lack of
encouragement to participate in carbon projects (06.82%); long gestation period of forestry
projects and therefore delayed economic returns (05.68%); management constraints like
weeds particularly Lantana camara competing with forest plant species, poaching, human
interference etc.; technological backwardness of stakeholders; and small sized land-holdings
(03.41% each). Other perceived constraints included lack of co-ordination among
stakeholders, both with the extension personnel and in between themselves (02.27); less area
under forests in Punjab and rigid forest legislations (01.14% each).
5.3.7
Suggestions to overcome the constraints
Among various suggestions, creation of awareness on carbon trading and related
concepts using various mass media sources was the most frequent (21.85%) suggestion
reported; followed by adequate training (15.97%) in the field to all stakeholders (agricultural
scientists, extension personnel, farmers and forest land owners); proactive and strict role of
70
government in implementation of formulated policies (13.44%); liberal and adequate funding
(10.08%) for research on carbon trading and carbon projects; simplification of development
and registration process for carbon projects (07.56%). Other suggestions included adequate
capacity building in manpower and infrastructure by the related institutions; strengthening of
the national and global linkages between all the stakeholders; and group and co-operative
action on the part of farmers and forest land owners (05.04% each). The respondents also
stated that there should be adequate promotion of viable alternatives (04.20%) to reduce
GHG emissions like conservation agriculture, solar power, bio-fuels etc. Other suggestions
include encouragement to public-private partnership (PPP) model of growth in the field of
carbon trading (02.52); motivation need to increased among the stakeholders and they should
be encouraged to participate actively in carbon trading and related issues; consensus building
at global level i.e., among developed, developing and under developed nations on the issue of
emission GHG reduction (01.69% each); increased role of Environment Protection Agency,
wider from its present role; development of area-specific projects; and assured marketing
after completion of project period (0.01% each).
5.4
Preparation of Booklet
A booklet titled “Carbon Trading Possibilities in Agriculture and Forestry” was
prepared with the help of experts. The main topics covered in the booklet were background
for carbon trading; types of carbon market and their main features; design and development
of carbon projects; various funding possibilities and some registered carbon projects in India.
The primary aim of preparation of booklet is to create awareness regarding carbon trading in
relation to agriculture and forestry among the masses.
5.5
Conclusion
A thorough investigation of the results obtained in the present study indicates that
the awareness level of both the agricultural scientists and extension personnel is not much
encouraging. Although the awareness level related to climate change and its implications on
diverse fields was found to be high among the respondents, but for the aspects related to
carbon sequestration, carbon trading, various activities included in carbon trading, many of
the agricultural scientists were found to be not aware. And the results for extension personnel
in this regard were completely negative. Similarly the opinion of the respondents regarding
climate change and carbon trading was studied and it was found to be weak and bent towards
neutrality. This further strengthens the conclusion that the awareness level among the
respondents was far below expectations. The study also revealed that majority of the
respondents, except a few agricultural scientists, did not attend any training on carbon
trading and related concepts in the recent past, so this area needs to be targeted. More and
more conferences/workshops/seminars are required to create awareness and provide a bigger
71
but common platform for interaction to the agricultural scientists and extension personnel.
The use of mass media sources, particularly newspapers, literature, internet and local media
should be encouraged to create awareness among the extension personnel and agricultural
scientists regarding carbon trading or new development.
5.6
Implications of the Study
The present study was an attempt to assess the awareness and opinion of the
agricultural scientists of PAU and extension personnel of Ludhiana district of Punjab state.
The results of the present investigation will be useful to the administrators of the university
and the state. Also, it will be helpful for various other academic institutions.
I.
The study may provide guidelines to the agricultural scientists and extension
personnel to plan strategies to create more awareness about the concept of carbon
trading and generate interest about it.
II.
The study will provide insight into the week areas of knowledge and participation
regarding carbon trading.
III.
The study will provide the usefulness of various mass media sources, based on the
data obtained related to its usage.
IV.
The booklet on carbon trading will be helpful for the masses in general to gain a
preliminary knowledge about the concept of carbon trading, carbon markets and
carbon projects.
72
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