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Physical Anthropology
Selections from Pop Science to Primary Research
Edited by Elizabeth Weiss
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• Introduction
• Section 1 Introduction
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Physical Anthropology
S e le c t i o n s f ro m Po p S c ienc e to Pr ima r y R es ea rc h
Edited by Elizabeth Weiss
San Jose State University
Bassim Hamadeh, Publisher
Christopher Foster, Vice President
Michael Simpson, Vice President of Acquisitions
Jessica Knott, Managing Editor
Stephen Milano, Creative Director
Kevin Fahey, Cognella Marketing Program Manager
Melissa Accornero, Acquisitions Editor
Erin Escobar, Licensing Associate
Cover illustrations by Gisela Weiss
Copyright © 2012 by University Readers, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in
any information retrieval system without the written permission of University Readers, Inc.
First published in the United States of America in 2012 by University Readers, Inc.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
15 14 13 12 11 12345
Printed in the United States of America
ISBN: 978-1-60927-142-8
Contents
Questions for Each Article
ix
Introductionxiii
Section 1: Understanding Evolutionary Concepts
1
Section Introduction
1. Darwin Day Celebration: The International Recognition of
Darwin, Science, and Humanity
Robert J. Stephens
3
9
2. The Origin of Species
Charles Darwin
15
3. Evolution in the Everyday World
David Mindell
27
4. Sexual Selection, Multiple Mating and Paternity in Grey Mouse Lemurs, Microcebus murinus
Ute Radespiel, Valentina Dal Secco, Cord Dro Gemu Ller†, Pia Braune,
Elisabeth Labes, Elke Zimmermann
35
5. Effects of Sexual Dimorphism on Facial Attractiveness
D. I. Perrett, et al.
49
Glossary55
Section 2: Primates
57
Section Introduction
6. Primates in Peril: New Survey Identifies the Most Threatened Species
Weekly Reader Corporation
59
63
7. Disturbing Behaviors of the Orangutan Anne Maggioncalda and Robert Sapolsky
67
8. Flo’s Sex Life
Jane Goodall
75
9. Chimpanzee Ai and Her Son Ayumu: An Episode of
Education by Master-Apprenticeship
Tetsuro Matsuzawa
81
10. Adaptive Origins of Primates Revisited
Christophe Soligo and Robert D. Martin
87
Glossary123
Section 3: Human Evolution
125
Section Introduction
127
11. Lucy, Thirty Years Later: An Expanded View of Australopithecus afarensis133
Donald C. Johanson
12. New Hominin Genus from Eastern Africa
153
Shows Diverse Middle Pliocene Lineages
Meave G. Leakey, Fred Spoorf, Frank H. Brown, Patrick N. Gathogot, Christopher Kiarie,
Louise N. Leakey, and Ian McDougall
13. Early Hominids: Diversity or Distortion?
Tim White
169
14. The Multiregional Evolution of Humans Alan Thorne and Milford Wolpoff
173
15. Human Origins: Out of Africa
Ian Tattersall
183
Glossary
193
Section 4: Holocene Changes 197
Section Introduction
16. Impossibly Old America? Mike Toner
199
205
17. The First Americans Robert Adler
211
18. Kennewick Man’s Funeral: The Burying of Scientific Evidence
Elizabeth Weiss
217
19. The Emergence of Agriculture in Southern China
Zhang Chi and Hsiao-Chun Hung
227
20. Once Were CANNIBALS Tim D. White
243
Glossary
251
Section 5: Modern Human Variation
253
Section Introduction
21. Change We Can Believe in: “Race” and Continuing Selection in
the Human Genome
Kenneth W. Krause
255
261
22. Biological Aspects of Race Ed Hagen
267
23. Understanding Race and Human Variation: Why Forensic Anthropologists
Are Good at Identifying Race
Stephen Ousley, Richard Jantz, and Donna Freid
271
24. Vitamin D-Deficient Rickets: The Reemergence of a
Once-Conquered Disease
Thomas R. Welch, William H. Bergstrom, and Reginald C. Tsang
289
25. The Evolution of Light Skin Color: Role of Vitamin D Disputed
Ashley H. Robins
295
Glossary
303
Questions for Each Article
ARTICLE TITLE: __________________________________________
AUTHOR(S): ____________________________________________
ORIGINAL SOURCE: ______________________________________
QUESTIONS FOR EACH ARTICLE:
1) What is the main theme of this article?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Questions for Each Article | ix
2) What evidence supports the article’s theme?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3) Is this article a primary research article? Why or why not?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4) How does this article relate to other aspects of human evolution?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
x | Physical Anthropology
5) How does this article help you to understand the world around you?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Questions for Each Article | xi
Introduction
T
he purpose of this volume is twofold. Many college students, perhaps like yourself, take Introduction
to Human Evolution courses to fulfill a General Education requirement, and are therefore not
overly keen on the topic prior to enrollment. You (as well as many of your peers) may wonder what
human evolution has to do with your major or day-to-day life, and this brings me to the first purpose
of this anthology. I hope to demonstrate that studying evolution is, indeed, relevant to your life and I
hope that you can pass on your knowledge to others. Understanding evolutionary concepts can help
one make informed health decisions, improve relationships, and better understand fellow humans.
Furthermore, evolutionary concepts come into play in the fields of forensics (e.g., DNA analyses of
crime scenes and victim identification through skeletal remains); medicine (e.g., individualizing medical treatment to account for personal biology and researching how pathogens are transmitted from
species to other species); psychology (e.g., understanding why we judge people based on appearance
and the nature of human attraction); and in many more disciplines as well. One does not have to
become an anthropologist to utilize knowledge of evolution in their lives; one must just be human.
The second purpose of this anthology is to stimulate critical thinking skills. Many students are
unaware of the difference between primary and secondary sources. This volume incorporates a mix
of readings taken from popular literature, review articles, and primary journal articles. By introducing
you to different types of references, I hope you will be able to discern what makes a primary source so
distinct from its secondary counterpart. I think that being able to find and assess relevant information
is one of the most critical skills you can develop in college. Primary sources do offer conclusions, but
the authors provide information on their data and analyses that help you determine whether to accept
their conclusions. Secondary sources do not reveal all the details of the scientific method, which can
make it difficult to assess the strength of the author’s conclusions. This of course does not mean that all
secondary sources should be tossed out. Rather, it simply means that you should be able to recognize
the difference between the types of sources and locate primary sources for topics that you wish to learn
more about. Thus, with each article, I encourage you to ask yourself what the authors’ conclusions are,
how they reached their conclusions, if you would have drawn similar conclusions and—perhaps most
critically—what additional information you would like to have about the topic. You can apply this approach to help you critically analyze material you encounter in your everyday life (on the internet, in
Introduction | xiii
the news, from magazines, etc.) and make informed decisions (e.g., such as when you read about a new
health fad, should you follow it unquestioningly or should you examine the original source to make sure
that the claims are based on scientific data?). This skill to read critically will serve you throughout your
life.
This anthology is divided into five sections: 1) Understanding Evolutionary Concepts; 2) Primates; 3)
Human Evolution; 4) Holocene Changes; and 5) Modern Human Variation. Each of these sections has a
diverse selection of readings that includes classic popular science chapters, review articles, and primary
peer-reviewed research articles. Articles were chosen to emphasize some of the important connections
evolution has with understanding humans and making connections to your life. I hope that you enjoy
the diversity of the materials selected and can see how understanding evolution can enrich your college
experience and your life for many years to come.
xiv | Physical Anthropology
Section 1
Understanding Evolutionary Concepts
Section Introduction
E
volution is the backbone to understanding the world around us. It helps us understand one another and can serve as the foundation of a more unified humanity. It also helps form the basis of
advanced medicine and the use of DNA for purposes that include genetic counseling, forensics, and
human-origins research. Although much of what we know about evolution is a result of recent genetic
breakthroughs, evolutionary hypotheses and the theory of evolution via Natural Selection are over
a hundred years old. This section will provide you with keys to understanding Darwinian evolution
through Natural and Sexual Selection; it will give you examples of how these concepts are used in the
modern world; and, it will provide you with a glimpse into how scientists use the concept of Sexual
Selection in both non-human primates and humans to understand attraction.
Key Concepts:
•
•
•
•
Understand the importance of Darwin’s contribution to science and humanity.
Understand the types of information Darwin had available to him to come to conclusions about
evolution.
Grasp the way scientists utilize the concepts of evolution, genetics and selection to explain
behavior.
Connect humans to the natural world through Natural and Sexual Selection.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) is commonly referred to as the Father of Evolution, but he had learned
much from earlier scientists, such as his grandfather Erasmus Darwin who wrote about evolution via
Sexual Selection. Nevertheless, Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to explain fully how species
can originate and provided us with an accurate theory of evolution; he did this without knowledge of genetics. Darwin was able to explain evolution of species via Natural Selection through keen observations
on morphology (or the shape and form of anatomical structures) and embryology (or development).
For example, he had the insight to see how useless organs may simply be vestiges of past evolution. Often
Section Introduction | 3
scientists ponder why it took Darwin many years to publish Origin of Species (1859) when it seemed that
he had a vast amount in evidence to support his theory. Although Darwin did delay in publishing Origin
of Species, he published a multitude of other works in between; these other works were intended for a
scientific audience whereas Origin of Species could be read by a wider audience. Upon reading Origin of
Species one can see that some of his hesitancy may have been fear of backlash, as he directly takes on the
concept of Intelligent Design, separate creation for each species, and the possibility of a Creator itself.
The first two selections in this section highlight the enduring importance of Darwin’s work.
Although Darwin’s evolution by Natural Selection forms the backbone of science, the concept of
genetics was introduced into evolution later. Darwin lacked genetic knowledge, despite the fact that
Gregor Mendel’s (1882–1884) work on pea plants that explains how traits are passed from one generation to the next was published prior to Darwin’s Origin of Species. It is said that Darwin even had the
book on his shelf, but had not read it. Together with the Mendelian rules of genetics and the knowledge
of the DNA double helix structure discovered by Jim Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, evolutionary
theory is highly useful to explain in greater detail the world around us. Evolution is defined as a change
in allele frequency over time that is driven by Natural or Sexual Selection. With this in mind, the third
selection introduces the many ways in which genetics and evolution are combined to understand disease
patterns, crime scenes, and environmental affects on biodiversity.
The last two articles are included because they show that the theory of evolution is still used today to
understand both human and nonhuman behavior. Sexual Selection drives not only who we find attractive, but likely who we will mate with to have offspring. At times Sexual Selection and Natural Selection
seem to be at odds with one another, such as in the color of male birds that are brightly feathered, which
makes them more likely to be preyed upon. At other times, traits can be both attractive and unattractive,
such as masculinity and aggression. The compromises made prevent runaway sex differences and also
highlight the importance of female choice, which Darwin also recognized. Additionally, these two articles show—as Darwin would have liked—that we are driven by evolution and are not separate from the
natural world and that some of the “lesser” species have similar behaviors to ourselves. Charles Darwin’s
Descent of Man (1871) and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872) placed humans
alongside other species in both mating behaviors and many other behaviors because just as morphology
has evolved from a common ancestor so have our behaviors.
Readings in this Section
1. “DARWIN DAY CELEBRATION: The International Recognition of Darwin, Science, and
Humanity” highlights the relevance of evolution by Natural Selection in today’s world. Religion is for
the most part anti-evolution and this article demonstrates that one does not need religion to be ethical;
ethics driven by evolution can replace religion. 4 | Physical Anthropology
Charles Darwin (1809–1882)
1831: Graduated from Christ’s College in Cambridge.
1831–1836: Traveled to the South American Coast on the Beagle.
1844: Published a summary of his views on species origins
1859: Published On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life.
1871: Published The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex.
1872: Published The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.
2. Darwin C. 1859. Origin of Species, 1st Edition. Chapter XIII: Morphology, Embryology; Rudimentary
Organs is an excerpt from Darwin’s seminal
work. Darwin was writing for a large
Darwin’s evidence of evolution came from a
popular audience rather than the scientific large variety of sources including:
elite and this chapter includes evidence of
• Embryology
evolution that is still correct today. Charles
Darwin has often been said not to have
• Vestigial Organs
tackled the question of the Creator in his
Origin of Species, but this section makes
• Convergence
it clear that he did question how someone
• Adaptive Radiation
could interpret anatomy rudimentary
organs, convergence, and homology and
• Selective Breeding
still accept that each species was created
And his work benefited from the work of many
separately.
before him included:
3. Mindell D. 2009. “Evolution in the
• Charles Lyell and his theory of uniformitariEveryday World” introduces the diverse
anism;
ways in which evolution has been applied.
• Georges Buffon and his keen observations
Today, evolution is defined as a change in
about plant variation;
allele frequency over time; Darwin did not
know about the laws of heredity although
• Thomas Malthus who explained the imporMendel’s work on the genetics of pea plants
tance of competition for resources on an
had already been published. Today, genetics
economic level.
is used to time evolutionary splits, it helps
us to understand evolutionary arms races,
and even helps us to understand the transmission of diseases from animals to humans. This article also
proposes what understanding evolution may do for us in the future.
Section Introduction | 5
Genetic Timeline
1866: Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), the Austrian monk, had his paper on the laws of inheritance published.
1900: Mendel’s work on pea plants and inheritance is rediscovered.
1920s: Scientists, such as R.A. Fisher, Theodosius Dobzhansky, J.B.S. Haldane, Ernst Mayer, and George
Gaylord Simpson, from diverse fields combine genetics with evolution via Natural Selection and come
up with the Modern Synthesis.
1953: Jim Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Maurice Wilins discover the double-helix morphology of DNA.
1960s: Emile Zuckerlandl and Linus Pauling sequence amino acids and discover the concept of the
molecular clock.
1967: Vincent Sarich and Allan Wilson publish a timescale for hominid evolution using genetics.
1977: DNA sequencing technology was developed by Fred Sanger.
1987: Rebecca Cann, Mark Stoneking, and Allan Wilson publish the genetic tree of modern human
origins using mtDNA.
1990: Genome projects are started.
1996: The first mammalian clone (Dolly the sheep) is born.
2001: The sequence of the human genome is released.
4. Radespiel U, Dal Secco V, Drögemüller
C, Braune P, Labes E, et al. 2002. “Sexual
Grey Mouse Lemur Facts
selection, multiple mating and paternity in
grey mouse lemurs, microcebus murinus” Country: Madagascar
shows us that even in non-human primates,
mating is complex. Concepts of dominance, Continent: Africa
submission and aggression are themes in Diet: Omnivores
primate behavior that we may recognize
in ourselves. Charles Darwin’s grandfather Habitat: Arboreal
Erasmus Darwin described evolution being
Locomotion: Quadrupedal and leaping short disdriven by Sexual Selection and Charles
tances.
Darwin expanded on the concept of Sexual
Selection in Descent of Man (1871) in Size: 12.9 cm; 53.2 – 65.5 g
which he emphasized the importance of
Longevity: in captivity over 18 years
female choice.
6 | Physical Anthropology
5. “Effects of Sexual Dimorphism on Facial Attractiveness” demonstrates that humans, too,are affected
by Sexual Selection. What we deem attractive is, in part, determined by evolutionary forces. Attraction
is decidedly complex and has a biological component. Beauty is not truly in the eye of the beholder, but
is rather structured by conflicting evolutionary
Human Attraction studies by human
desires that help to prevent runaway selection.
evolutionary psychologists, biologists, and
anthropologists have also examined:
• Hip-to-Waist Ratios and found male
cross-cultural preferences for larger
hips in comparison to waists.
• Waist-to-Shoulder Ratios and have
found females prefer males with
broader shoulders than waists.
• Cross-cultural preferences for symmetry.
• Cross-cultural preferences for youthful
appearances.
Section Introduction | 7