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NORTH CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL CP & X Biology End of Course Assessment (E.C.A.) Review Revised 4/16/14, Chelsea Parsey North Central High School Standard 1: Cellular Chemistry Core Standard Describe the basic molecular structure and function of the four major categories of organic compounds (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids) essential to cellular function. Core Standard Describe how work done in cells is performed by a variety of organic molecules, especially proteins, whose functions depend on the sequence of their monomers and the consequent shape of the molecule. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.1.1 Describe the structure of the major categories of organic compounds essential to living organisms in terms of their building blocks and the small number of chemical elements (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous, and sulfur) from which they are composed. Monomer, polymer, organic, inorganic, atom, element, molecule, compound, macromolecule, monosaccharide, polysaccharide, amino acid, protein, fatty acid, lipids, nucleotide, nucleic acids 1. Identify the six main elements found in a living organism. CARBON HYDROGEN NITROGEN OXYGEN PHOSPHOROUS SULFUR 2. There are four categories of organic molecules in living organisms. Fill-in the blanks in the following chart. ESSENTIAL MONOMERS POLYMERS FUNCTION NAME ID COMPOUND MONOSACCHARIDE POLYSACCHARIDE Energy Most end in –ose Carbohydrates FATTY ACIDS Phospholipids Triglycerides Waxes Cell Membranes Energy Storage Insulation Most monomers end with –ic and are acids AMINO ACIDS Polypeptides Structures (muscle, bone, hair, etc.) Enzymes Many end in –ase NUCLEOTIDES DNA RNA Store and Transmit genetic information The “NA” in DNA & RNA stands for Nucleic Acid Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids 2 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.1.2 Understand that the shape of a molecule Cell energy, enzymes, induced fit model, determines its role in the many different types of cellular substrate, active site, DNA, RNA, cell transport, processes including metabolism, homeostasis, growth homeostasis, metabolism, chemical reactions and development, and heredity, and recognize that the majority of these processes involve proteins that act as enzymes. 3. Explain what enzymes are and describe how they function. Enzymes are biological catalysts that help to make chemical reactions in organisms happen quicker. Enzymes use the INDUCED FIT MODEL, in which substance called a SUBSTRATE fits into the ACTIVE SITE of an enzyme. The enzyme then produces PRODUCTS by either forming or breaking chemical bonds. 4. Using the diagram below, label the major parts of enzyme action. PRODUCTS SUBSTRATE ACTIVE SITE ENZYME 5. Why is the relationship between structure and function important in biological systems? The structure (shape) of molecules, cells, and organisms as a whole directly determines what functions they can carry out. For example, Skin cells are flat and thin, which make the ideal for covering a surface, which is exactly what they do. The “Big Idea” B.1.3 Explain how the function and differentiation of cells is influenced by their external environment, including temperature, acidity and the concentration of certain molecules, and that extreme changes in these conditions may change how a cell functions. Terms to KNOW & USE Acidity, temperature, pH, denature, hormones, enzymes 6. How can extreme changes in temperature or pH affect the structure and function of proteins/enzymes? Extreme changes in TEMPERATURE or the pH (ACIDITY) of an environment can cause proteins to change shape. This is called DENATURING. If a protein’s shape changes then its function will change, meaning that it will no longer be able to the job that it was intended to do. 7. Explain why most organisms require a narrow range of environmental conditions to survive. Life is supported by a large variety of chemical process that occur all of the time. Chemical reactions require certain conditions to happen. 3 Standard 2: Cellular Structure Core Standard Describe features that are common to all cells and contrast those with distinctive features that allow cells to carry out specific functions. The “Big Idea” B.2.1 Describe features common to all cells that are essential for growth and survival, and explain their functions. Terms to KNOW & USE Nucleus/nucleoid region (prokaryote/eukaryote) cell/plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosome 1. Explain the seven (7) basic characteristics of ALL living organisms and give an example of each. CHARACTERISTIC DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE Metabolism Homeostasis A combination of the chemical reactions an organisms uses to break down and build up materials. A cow eats and digests grass for energy. The ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment. Humans’ ability to maintain a constant internal temperature. All organisms are made of one or more cells. Animals, plants and fungi are made of multiple cells. Bacteria and protists are made up of single cells. Organisms adapt to changes in their environment. Plants growing in the direction of sunlight. Organisms get bigger and more specialized as they get older. Infants get larger, and are able to do more complex tasks as toddlers. All organisms have DNA, which passes their genetic make up to their offspring through either asexual or sexual reproduction. A dog’s puppies have similar characteristics as their mother. Organisms are able to make more of their own kind. Plants producing seeds that result in more plants. Cellular Organization Response to Stimuli Growth & Development Heredity/DNA Ability to Reproduce 2. Complete the following chart with function of common organelles. ORGANELLE FUNCTION The outer, protective layer of a cell. It regulates what enters and leaves the Cell Membrane cell. Nucleus Cytoplasm The structure that contains a cell’s DNA. It is the command and control center. The space inside of a cell that contains all the organelles. It is filled with a gel-like substance called cytosol. 4 3. List three (3) similarities and three (3) differences between eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells. (Give an example of each.) Similarities: : - Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have a cell membrane - Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have DNA (Genetic Material.) - Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have cytoplasm. - Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have ribosomes. Differences: - Eukaryotes have a membrane-bound nucleus, but prokaryotes do not. - Eukaryotes have a membrane-bound organelles that carry out cell processes, but prokaryotes do not. - Eukaryotes undergo mitosis, but prokaryotes undergo binary fission. EXAMPLES: Prokaryotes: Bacteria. Eukaryotes: Animals, plants, fungi, and protists. 4. List three (3) similarities and three (3) differences between plant cells and animal cells. Similarities: - Both plant and animal cells have a cell membrane. - Both plant and animal cells have mitochondria. - Both plant and animal cells have a membrane-bound nucleus. Differences: - Plant cells have cell wall, but animal cells do not. - Plant cells contain chloroplasts, but animal cells do not. - Plant cells contain a central vacuole, but animal cells do not. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.2.2 Describe the structure of a cell membrane and Cell membrane, phospholipids, passive explain how it regulates the transport of materials into transport, active transport, osmosis, diffusion, and out of the cell and prevents harmful materials from concentration gradient, homeostasis entering the cell. 5. Describe the term "semi-permeable" (or "selectively-permeable) membrane. Why is it important? A SEMI-PERMIABLE membrane also for the TRANSPORT of certain materials into and out of a cell, but not others. It is important because cells need certain materials to survive, but if other materials enter the cell, it could destroy the cell. 6. List two (2) similarities and two (2) differences between passive transport and active transport and give 2 examples of each. Similarities: - Both active and passive transport move materials into and out of cells. - Both active and passive transport can move materials through a semi-permeable membrane. Differences: - Active transport requires the cell to use energy, but passive transport does not. - Active transport can move against the CONCENTRATION GRADIENT, but passive transport cannot. Examples: - PASSIVE TRANSPORT: Osmosis, diffusion, facilitated diffusion - ACTIVE TRANSPORT: Endocytosis, exocytosis, phagocytosis, pinocytosis, ion pumps 7. Describe homeostasis and why it is important to an organism. Homeostasis is the ability of an organism to maintain a relatively constant internal environment. This is important be cause cells need certain materials and conditions to survive. They also have to be able to keep out dangerous materials that could harm the cell. 8. What is a stimulus and explain how an organism’s ability to respond to a stimulus helps it survive? A stimulus is a change in the environment that causes a response. Organisms must be able to respond to stimuli so that they can adjust to better survive when conditions change (for example, plant leaves changing to face sun, bears hibernating, porcupine extending quills in defense.) 5 9. For the following diagrams, draw arrows that show the direction that water diffuses (concentration gradient) through the membrane. Label the beaker and cell in each diagram as either hypertonic, hypotonic, or isotonic. Beaker = 60% Water Beaker = 90% Water Beaker = 50% Water Beaker = 100% Water Cell = 80% Water Cell = 40% Water Cell = 50% Water Cell = 20% Water Beaker A Beaker B Beaker C Beaker D Beaker: Hypertonic Beaker: Hypotonic Beaker: Isotonic Beaker: Hypotonic Cell: Hypotonic Cell: Hypertonic Cell: Isotonic Cell: Hypertonic The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.2.3 Explain that most cells contain mitochondria, the Mitochondria, cellular respiration, chloroplasts, key sites of cellular respiration, where stored chemical photosynthesis, ATP energy is converted into useable energy for the cell and some cells, including many plant cells, contain chloroplasts, the key sites of photosynthesis, where the energy of light is captured for use in chemical work. 10. Complete the following chart with function of common organelles. ORGANELLE FUNCTION The site of cellular respiration, where cells break down glucose into a Mitochondrion useable form of energy for the cell (ATP.) Chloroplast The site of photosynthesis, where cells convert light energy into usable energy for the cell (ATP), and stored energy (glucose). 11. Explain the role and importance of ATP in living organisms. Also, explain how energy is released from ATP. ATP, or Adenosine Triphosphate is the functional unit of energy for living things. It is made of an “adenosine” group with three phosphates. When the third phosphate is detached, the chemical energy that was holding in place is released and can be used by the cell. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.2.4 Explain that all cells contain ribosomes, the key Ribosomes, protein synthesis, mRNA, amino sites for protein synthesis, where genetic material is acids, rRNA decoded in order to form unique proteins. 12. Complete the following chart with function of common organelles. ORGANELLE FUNCTION The site of protein synthesis, in which mRNA undergoes transcription to Ribosome form chains of amino acids. 6 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.2.5 Explain that cells use proteins to form structures, Cilia, flagella, surface area, unicellular, including cilia, flagella, which allow them to carry out multicellular specific functions, including movement, adhesion, and absorption. 13. Complete the following chart with function of common organelles. ORGANELLE FUNCTION Small, hair-like projections from the outside of a cell which can pulse, Cilia causing the cell to move, or create a current to cause food particles to come close to the cell. They can also be used for absorption. A long tail-like structure that allows a cell to move through its environment Flagella (water). 14. How does the presence of cilia affect the surface area of a cell and how does it that effect how the cell carries out its important functions? The presence of cilia increases the surface of a cell. The greater the surface area, the more space that can be used for absorption. That means that the cell can get more resources from its surroundings. Standard 3: Matter Cycles and Energy Transfer Core Standard Describe how the sun’s energy is captured and used to construct sugar molecules which can be used as a form of energy or serve as building blocks of organic molecules. Core Standard Diagram how matter and energy cycle through an ecosystem. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.3.1 Describe how some organisms capture the sun’s Carbohydrate, chemical bond, chemical energy through the process of photosynthesis by reaction, producer, autotroph, reactant product, converting carbon dioxide and water into high-energy glucose, ATP, carbon dioxide, water, light compounds and releasing oxygen. energy, chloroplasts, chlorophyll 1. Write out the chemical equation for photosynthesis. 6CO2 + 6H2O ⇒ C6H12O6 + 6O2 2. Describe the process of photosynthesis using the following terms (underline them as they appear in your answer: photosynthesis, sunlight, glucose, carbon dioxide, water, oxygen (O2), autotrophs, chloroplast, pigment, chlorophyll. Plants are autotrophs, which means they can produce their own food. Plants conduct photosynthesis by absorbing sunlight in small organelles called chloroplasts which contain a green pigment called chlorophyll. These chloroplasts take carbon dioxide and water, in the presence of sunlight, to produce glucose, and oxygen (O2) The “Big Idea” B.3.2 Describe how most organisms can combine and recombine the elements contained in sugar molecules into a variety of biologically essential compounds through the process of cellular respiration. Terms to KNOW & USE Carbohydrate, chemical bond, chemical reaction, producer, autotroph, reactant product, glucose, ATP, carbon dioxide, water, chemical energy, aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration, heterotroph, consumer, mitochondria 7 3. Write out the chemical equation for cellular respiration. C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⇒ 6CO2 + 6H2O 4. Describe the process of cellular respiration using the following terms (underline them as they appear in your answer: cellular respiration, glucose, carbon dioxide, water, oxygen (O2), autotrophs, heterotrophs, mitochondria, ATP, 46, anaerobic, aerobic. Cellular respiration is the process by which cells take in glucose and oxygen (O2), and produce energy in the form of 46 ATP molecules, along with carbon dioxide and water. This occurs mostly in the small organelle called the mitochondria. If oxygen is present, cellular respiration is aerobic. However, if oxygen is not present, then the process is anaerobic. Cellular respiration is necessary for all heterotrophs, which are organisms that cannot make their own food, but is also conducted in autotrophs. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.3.3 Recognize and describe that metabolism metabolism consists of all of the biochemical reactions that occur inside cells, including the production, modification, transport, and exchange of materials that are required for the maintenance of life. 5. Explain why photosynthesis and cellular respiration are often referred to as a cycle. The products of photosynthesis are essential for cellular respiration to occur. The products of cellular respiration are essential for photosynthesis to occur. The summary equations for each process are the exact opposite of the other. 6. What is ATP and why is it important to all living things? ATP, or adenosine triphosphate, is the functional unit of energy for all living organisms. Organisms get energy by breaking off the last phosphate group and using the energy stored in that bond. During cellular respiration, organisms can convert the complex glucose molecule into many ATP molecules that it can then use to do any number of functions for which the cell needs energy. 8 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.3.4 Describe how matter cycles through an ecosystem by way of food chains and food webs and how organisms convert that matter into a variety of organic molecules. Food web, food chain, biomass, ecosystem, carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, producer/autotroph, consumer/heterotroph, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer, carnivore, omnivore, herbivore, decomposer. 7. Draw a food web in the space to the right using the information provided in the paragraph below. Label each organisms of one of the following: producer (P), primary consumer (PC), secondary consumer (SC), or tertiary consumer (TC). “In the savannahs of Africa there is a complex system of organisms that depend on each other for survival. The plentiful grass provides food for insects, small rodents like mice, and gazelles. Trees provide a food source for giraffes. Birds eat the insects and mice. Hyenas often eat the mice and from time to time a pack of hyenas will eat a gazelle. Lions, the king of the savannah, will eat gazelles, hyenas, and giraffes.” Lions SC/TC SC Insects PC Birds Hyenas SC Mice Giraffes PC Gazelles PC PC Grasses P Trees P 9 8. Identify and briefly describe the major steps of each of the biochemical cycles below. CYCLE MAJOR STEPS/PROCESSES Photosynthesis (converts CO2 into glucose), Cellular Respiration (converts CARBON CYCLE glucose into CO2), Combustion (emits CO2), consumption (exchange of matter between organisms), Decomposition (all mater returns to soil.) NITROGEN CYCLE WATER CYCLE Nitrogen Fixation (bacteria and lighting convert of atmospheric N2 to ammonia and nitrates/nitrites that are usable to living things), consumption (exchange of matter between organisms), Decomposition (all mater returns to soil.) Evaporation (converts liquid water to vapor), Transpiration (loss of water vapor by plants), Condensation (conversion of vapor to liquid water), Precipitation (liquid or solid water falls to surface), Run-off (precipitation flows into water sources), Seepage/Percolation (precipitation infiltrates ground) The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.3.5 Describe how energy from the sun flows through an ecosystem by way of food chains and food webs and only a small portion of that energy is used by individual organisms while the majority of energy is lost as heat. Energy pyramid, trophic levels, producer/autotroph, consumer/heterotroph, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consumer, carnivore, omnivore, herbivore. 9. Label each level of the food pyramid with one or more of the following terms: Tertiary Consumer, Decomposer, Primary Consumer, Producer, Secondary Consumer, Herbivore, Carnivore, Omnivore. 1. Tertiary Consumer, Carnivore 2. Secondary Consumer, Carnivore (Possible Omnivore) 3. Primary Consumer, Herbivore 4. Producer 5. Decomposer 10. Refer to the diagram in question one. Assume organism “4” started out with 5000kcal of energy. Calculate how much energy each of the other organisms would receive from the original amount. 4 = 5000kcal 3 = 500kcal 2 = 50kcal 1 = 5kcal 11. Where does most of the energy and matter/biomass in an environment come from and how much is passed on at each trophic level? The sun is the primary source of energy of most ecosystems, which is converted by photosynthetic organisms, where are consumed heterotrophs for their energy. Only about 10% of the energy from one organism can be passed on to the organism that consumes it as usable energy. The rest of the energy is lost as heat. 10 Standard 4: Interdependence Core Standard Describe the relationship between living and nonliving components of ecosystems and describe how that relationship is in continual flux due to natural changes and human influence. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.4.1 Explain that the amount of life an environment Carrying capacity, biotic, abiotic, biodiversity, can support is limited by the available energy, water, habitat niche, ecology, limiting factor, oxygen, and minerals, and by the ability of ecosystems exponential growth to recycle the remains of dead organisms. 1. List the hierarchy of biological organization starting with atoms and going up to biosphere. ATOMS MOLECULE MACROMOLECULE ORGANELLE CELL TISSUE ORGAN ORGANISM POPULATION COMMUNITY ECOSYSTEM BIOME BIOSHPERE 2. What is the difference between biotic and abiotic factors? List 3 examples of each. Biotic factors are living parts of an environment, which include, predators, prey, plants, bacteria, etc. Abiotic factors are non-living parts of an environment, which include temperature, water, air, space, etc. 3. Using the graph below, explain what line “A” and line “B” are telling you about the population and how they are determined? Line A is the carry capacity, which is the maximum number or individuals that an ecosystem can sustain based on the available resources. Line B is the actual population, which goes above the carrying capacity, then, due to environmental pressures, crashes. A B 11 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.4.2 Describe how human activities and natural Biotic, abiotic, invasive/non-native species, phenomena can change the flow of matter and energy in habitat destruction/alteration, pollution, an ecosystem and how those changes impact other sustainability, climate change, natural species. disasters, biodiversity 4. Using the following chart, the ways in which humans can impact/disrupt each of the biochemical cycles listed. BIOCHEMICAL HUMAN IMPACTS CYCLE If humans use too much water then it can interrupt the supply of water to other Water Cycle places and organisms. Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Burning too many fossil fuels can cause too much carbon to be put into the atmosphere. Too much nitrogen can cause soil to be infertile, and can cause other problems in aquatic ecosystems. 5. How are fossil fuels formed and what environmental effects do they have when they are burned? Decayed plant and animal material are covered over and after millions of years of decomposition and pressure, form crude fossil fuels. When they are extracted, refined, and burned, fossil fuels release energy along with carbon dioxide gas and other participles that can be harmful to the environment. 6. Refer to question # 5 under “Big Idea” B.4.1. What could happen to the ecosystem if a disease came through and destroyed all of the mice? What role does biodiversity play? If the mice all die, then the bird and hyena population would suffer because much of their food source would be gone. If the hyenas decrease then the lions would have to eat more giraffes and gazelles, causing their population to decrease. This would also increase competition among the lions causing their population to suffer. If there were more species that the birds and hyenas could feed on (more biodiversity) then the impact would be much less. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.4.3 Describe the potential consequences of Non-native/invasive species, native/indigenous introducing a non-native species into an ecosystem and species, competition, natural resources, identify the impact it may have on that ecosystem. habitat, niche, extinction 7. What factors are included in an organism’s niche? A niche is the role that a species plays in an ecosystem and includes any and environmental factors that an organism uses or provides. A niche includes what an organism eats, where it eats, when it eats, and where it lives. 8. Explain the impact that non-native species, such as zebra mussels in the great lakes, can have on an ecosystem. Sometimes, non-native species can out compete native species, causing them to starve. Also, non-native species can become predators of native species without have predators of their own. This means that they population could grow quickly, while the native species’ populations would decrease causing a drastic change in the environment. 12 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.4.4 Describe how climate, the pattern of matter and energy flow, the birth and death of new organisms, and the interaction between those organisms contribute to the long term stability of an ecosystem. Biotic/abiotic, biodiversity, population dynamics, climate, weather, sustainability, equilibrium, predator/prey, mutualism, parasitism, commensalism (symbiosis), competition, migration 9. Complete the following chart by describing the relationships using these terms and their definitions: parasitism, mutualism, commensalism, competition, and predator-prey. ORGANISMS RELATIONSHIP DEFINITION Predator/Prey One species depends on another for its A lynx hunts and eats a hare. food source. The species that is hunted or eaten is called the prey and the species that does the hunting is called the predator. Competition Two or more organisms/species need the Zebras and gazelles eat the same limited resource. same grass. Parasitism One organism/species receives a benefit, An intestinal worm takes energy while the other organism is harmed. from a dog. A bee pollinates a flower and Mutualism Two organisms/species both receive a gets pollen to make its own benefit from the relationship. food. Cattle stomp the ground while Commensalism One organism/species receive a benefit walking forcing up bugs for the from the relation while the other neither egrets to eat. benefits nor is harmed. 10. Fill in the chart below regarding biomes. BIOME CHARACTERISTICS (CLIMATE/ORGANISMS) Most productive biome. 2 seasons (wet & dry.) Tropical Rain Forest Growth occurs year round. LOCAIONS Near the equator. Cold. Largely treeless. Permafrost, or permanently frozen layer of soil under surface. Northern most biome. Tundra Inland, close to equator. Desert Hot. Very few plants (cacti). Very little precipitation. Grass is dry which leads to frequent fires that Tropical to temperate prevent tree growth. Many species of herding areas with very little animals. humidity. Pronounced seasons with trees that lose their Much of the U.S. Deciduous Forest leaves in the fall. Moderate temperatures and (including Indiana). humidity. 11. Describe the process of succession. (Draw a diagram to help explain your answer.) Succession is the gradual, sequential re-growth of a community of species in an ecosystem. Succession begins with simple, or pioneer species that reproduce quickly. The ecosystem continues to grow into a climax community, which is stable and undergoes very little change. Grasslands 13 Standard 5: Molecular Basis of Heredity Core Standard Describe the basic structure of DNA and how this structure enables DNA to function as the hereditary molecule that directs the production of RNA and proteins. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.5.1 Describe the relationship between chromosomes and DNA along with their basic structure and function. Nucleotide, chromatin, chromosomes, genes, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, double helix, James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, nucleus, histones, centromere 1. Explain the shape (form) and function of DNA including the parts that make it up. DNA is made of nucleotides that form long stands connected by covalent bonds. Two complimentary strands connect at the nitrogenous bases that are held together by hydrogen bonds. These nucleotides pair together (Adenine with Thymine, Guanine with Cytosine) creating a spiraling ladder called a double helix. The different order of the nucleotides codes for specific traits in organisms. 2. Draw a diagram of a chromosome, including the parts that make them up. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.5.2 Describe how hereditary information passed DNA, genes, chromosomes from parents to offspring is encoded in regions of DNA molecules called genes. 3. Describe how the inheritance of traits are determined in a diploid organism? Diploid organisms inherit 2 of each chromosome and therefore have 2 genes for each trait. If one of those genes codes for a dominant trait, then that will be the trait that appears in the individual. If both of the genes code for a recessive trait then that will be the trait that appears in the individual. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.5.3 Describe the process by which DNA directs the production of protein within a cell. DNA, RNA, mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, transcription, translation, codon, anti-codon, amino acid, ribosome, nucleus 4. Complete the chart below to show how DNA controls what proteins an organism produces. DNA CODE GGG AAT CTT ATA GCT mRNA CODE tRNA CODE AMINO ACID CCC UUA GAA UAU CGA GGG AAU CUU AUA GCU PROLINE (PRO) LEUCINE (LEU) GLUTAMIC ACID (GLU) TYROSINE (TYR) ARGININE (ARG) 14 5. Explain the step-by-step process of transcription (draw a diagram to aid your explanation.) Transcription is the process whereby mRNA is made in the nucleus of a cell. RNA polymerase unzips and copies the existing DNA strand using complimentary base pairs. 6. Explain the step-by-step process of translation/protein synthesis (draw a diagram to aid your explanation.) Translation takes place on ribosomes, where are made of rRNA, and is the process whereby mRNA is decoded by tRNA to make proteins. Codons on mRNA are matched with anti-codons on tRNA which bring specific amino acids that are used to build a protein chain. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.5.4 Explain how the unique shape of each protein is determined by the sequence of its amino acids. 7. Explain how the order and number of amino acids in a protein determines both the structure and function of the protein. Provide an example. Proteins are made of chains of amino acids that are determined by the DNA sequence. When these amino acids are linked together they begin to fold into 3 dimensional shapes. These shapes are specific to the function of the protein. Example: An enzyme has a shape that will only fit its active site to one unique kind of substrate. 15 Standard 6: Cellular Reproduction Core Standard: Explain the processes by which new cells are formed from existing cells. Core Standard: Explain the cellular processes that occur to generate natural genetic variations between parents and offspring. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.6.1 Describe and model the process of mitosis and Mitosis, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, explain the relationship between the genetic make-up of telophase, cytokinesis, diploid, interphase, cell the parent cell and the daughter cells of both unicellular cycle, parent cell, daughter cell, asexual and multicellular organisms. reproduction 1. Use the chart below to list the steps of mitosis, draw what a cell in mitosis would look like, and describe what is happening at that phase. PHASE DIAGRAM WHAT IS HAPPENING (DRAWING) After the DNA is copied in interphase, the chromosomes in the nucleus become more dense, pair up with their sister Prophase chromatid (copy of itself), attach at a centromere, and the nuclear membrane starts to dissolve. The centrioles migrate to opposite poles of the cell. The nuclear membrane completely dissolves. The centrioles reach opposite poles and for a mitotic spindle (structure that the chromosomes attach to.) The chromosomes line up along the center of the cell. Metaphase The chromosomes split at the centromere and the chromatids migrate to opposite poles. Anaphase New nuclear membranes start to form and the chromosomes start to recoil. The cytoplasm divides in half and the cell membranes pinch in and the cells separate during cytokenisis. Telophase 2. How do the cells formed as a result of mitosis compare to the original cell? Cells formed by mitosis are genetically identical to the original cell. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.6.2 Describe how cells of a multicellular organism Gene expression, environmental conditions contain the same genetic information, but develop in different ways due to gene expression and environmental conditions. 3. Explain how cells differentiate and specialize to perform different functions like skin cells, muscle, and/or nerve cells. The genes in cells turn on and off depending on what type of cell it is to become. Skin cell genes turn on when the cell is going to be skin and turn off when the cell is going to become muscle. All cells have the same DNA and the same genes. The kind of cell that it becomes depends on which genes are turned on and off as it is specializing. 16 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.6.3 Describe and model the process of meiosis and explain the relationship between the genetic make-up of the parent cell and the daughter cells (gametes). Gametes, germ cell, meiosis, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I, prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II, diploid, haploid, centromere, homologous chromosomes, chromatid. 4. Use the chart below to list the steps of meiosis, draw what a cell in meiosis would look like, and describe what is happening at that phase. PHASE DIAGRAM (DRAWING) WHAT IS HAPPENING In prophase I, the nuclear membrane dissolves and the chromatin condenses into tightly packed rods, or Prophase I chromosomes. (Similar to mitosis.) Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II In metaphase I, the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell, but unlike mitosis, the chromosomes line up in pairs. Centrioles move to the poles. The mitotic spindle forms, which is a series of microtubules and filaments that give the cell structure during division. During metaphase, segments of DNA can “cross-over”, leading to genetic variation. In anaphase I, the homologous pairs of chromosomes separate and move toward the poles of the cell and the cell elongates. In telophase I, the chromosomes reach the opposite poles and the cell begins to cut itself into two halves at the cleavage furrow. The nuclear membranes begin to form around the chromosomes. Telophase I is followed by cytokinesis in which the two halves of the cell separate into two. In prophase II, the nuclear membranes of the two cells dissolve and the chromatin condenses into tightly packed rods, or chromosomes, however, the DNA has not been in interphase, and could not be copied. In metaphase II, the chromosomes line up at the equator of the cells and centrioles move to the poles. The mitotic spindle forms, which is a series of microtubules and filaments that give the cells structure during division. (Similar to mitosis.) In anaphase II, the chromosomes split at the centromere into sister chromatids. The chromatids move toward the poles of the cells and the cells elongate. (Similar to mitosis.) In telophase II, the chromatids reach the opposite poles and the cells begin to cut themselves into two halves at the cleavage furrow. The nuclear membranes begin to form around the chromatids. Telophase II is followed by cytokinesis in which the two halves of the cells separate into four cells, each with half the chromosomes as the original germ cell. 17 5. What is the difference between diploid and haploid? Diploid cells have 2 copies of each chromosome, and have a chromosome number of 2n. Haploid cells have only one copy of the chromosomes and have a chromosome number of n. Body, or somatic cells, is diploid. Gametes, or sex cells, are haploid because when they fuse the zygote will be diploid. 6. How do the cells formed as a result of meiosis compare to the original cell? Cells formed through the process of meiosis are different than the original cell They contain only half the number of chromosomes of the original. Each of the resulting 4 cells has a different combination of the genetic material. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.6.4 Explain how, in sexual reproduction, crossing Sexual reproduction, crossing over, over, independent assortment, and random fertilization, independent assortment, random fertilization, result in offspring that are genetically unique from the haploid, diploid parent cells. 7. List three (3) similarities and three (3) differences between cells produced by mitosis and cells produced by meiosis. (Give an example of each.) Similarities: Chromosomes condense, line up in the middle and separate. Differences: Crossing over happens in meiosis, there are 2 divisions in meiosis, Meiosis results in 4 genetically different cells—mitosis results in 2 genetically identical cells 8. Explain how the following processes lead to genetic variations in offspring produced by sexual reproduction. PROCESS DESCRIPTION/HOW IT CAUSES GENETIC VARATION Homologous sections of the sister chromatids trade sides creating DNA Crossing Over strands that are different from the original Independent Assortment Random Fertilization The chromosomes are separated from one another independently from the other chromosomes. The sperm that might fertilize an egg are all different from each other. The specific sperm that gets to the egg first will determine it’s traits and each sperm is different. 9. Explain how the chromosomes of 2 parents combine to form the unique combination of chromosomes in a offspring through sexual reproduction. Diploid Parents each make haploid gametes which contains half the number of chromosomes as the parent. These gametes combine to form a diploid offspring that has a unique set of chromosomes due to the genetic differences listed above. 18 Standard 7: Genetics Core Standard: Explain how the combination of genetic information from parents determines the unique characteristics of their offspring. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.7.1 Distinguish between dominant and recessive Gregor Mendel, genes, alleles, dominant, alleles and determine the phenotype that would result recessive, homozygous dominant, homozygous from the different possible combinations of alleles in an recessive, heterozygous, genotype, phenotype offspring. 1. Explain why Gregor Mendel is considered the “Father of Genetics”, and what contributions he made to the field. In 1843, a monk named Gregor Mendel was in charge of the garden at his monastery. He began to make observations about the different traits of pea plants (seed color, shape, height, etc…) Then he wondered what would happen if pollen from a pea plant with one trait would crosspollinate a plant with a different trait. Mendel started with true-breeding, or purebred plants that, when self-pollinated, always produce offspring with the same trait. He then cross-pollinated plants with opposite purebred traits (purple flowers with white flowers.) The result was that the first filial generation (F1) all produced purple flowers. This indicated that the genetic code for purple was dominant because it overpowered the genetic code for white. Mendel then crosspollinated the plants from the F1 generation to for the F2 generation and something changed. He got 75% purple flowers and 25% white flowers. The same thing happened with other traits, like pod color. This indicated that the recessive trait could resurface. It also indicated that all plants must have a pair of genes for each trait. 2. Explain the Law of Independent Assortment and why it is important. Alleles of different genes are separate from one another during gamete formation. Because of this each gamete gets one of each chromosome. 3. Explain the Law of Segregation and why it is important. The copies of a gene separate so that each gamete receives only one copy. This means that each fertilized egg gets a haploid set of chromosomes from each parent resulting in a diploid set. 4. Explain what is meant by each genotype (allele combination), list how you would represent the genotype in a Punnett square (letters), and describe the phenotype that results from it. GENOTYPE Homozygous Dominant DESCRIPTION (ALLELES) Homozygous refers to an organism that has two alleles that are both dominant. Homozygous Recessive Homozygous refers to an organism that has two alleles that are both recessive. Heterozygous Heterozygous refers to an organism that has two different alleles (one dominant and one recessive.) LETTERS (Use G) PHENOTYPE GG Dominant gg Recessive Gg Dominant 19 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.7.2 Describe dominant, recessive, codominant, sex- Dominant, recessive, codominance, sex-linked, linked, incompletely dominant, multiple allelic, and incomplete dominance, multiple allele, polygenic traits and illustrate their inheritance patterns polygenic, genotype, phenotype, Punnett over multiple generations. square, pedigree, carrier 5. Explain what is meant by each inheritance pattern, describe the phenotype that results from it and provide a specific example. INHERITANCE DESCRIPTION POSSIBLE ACTUAL EXAMPLE PATTERN PHENOTYPES A flower with white Codominance is expressed when 2 Dominants there is more than one dominant (RR = Red, BB= and red are both dominant and the Codominace trait and both are expressed Blue) flowers bloom as (physically.) 1 Combination white with red spots. (RB = Red & Blue) If black is the Incomplete dominance is expressed 2 Dominants when a dominant trait does not (RR = Red, BB= dominant fur color for a dog and white is Incomplete Dominance completely dominate and a blend of Blue) also dominant, the both the dominant and recessive trait 1 Combination dog would appear are expressed (neither complete) (RB = Purple) grey. Multiple Allelic Traits Generally there are two alleles, the dominant and the recessive. Some traits have more than two alleles which results in more than 2 possible phenotypes. Polygenic Traits Some traits are influenced by genes on located on multiple chromosomes. The frequency of the genes determines how the phenotype is expressed. 2 Dominants and 1 recessive (IAIA or IAi = A IBIB or IBi = B ii = O) Light, medium, dark. Blood types Hair, skin, and eye color. 6. Explain why the inheritance pattern of sex-linked traits differs from autosomal traits and provide 2 examples. Sex-linked traits are located on the X chromosome. They are inherited in different patterns than autosomal traits in men because men only inherit one X chromosome, where women inherit 2. If the X chromosome he inherits has a recessive allele then he will have the recessive trait. This means men inherit sex linked-traits more often than women. EXAMPLES include: Male pattern baldness, color blindness, hemophilia. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.7.3 Determine the likelihood of the appearance of a Gametes, Punnett square, monohybrid cross, specific trait in an offspring given the genetic make-up of homozygous dominant, heterozygous, the parents. homozygous recessive, probability 7. Compete the following Punnett squares and calculate the probabilities of each genotype and phenotype. H (a) Mom is homozygous dominant for her widow’s peak (hairline), but dad does not have a widow’s peak (Use the letter H.) Genotypes: Probability: Hh 4 out of 4 (100%) Phenotypes: Probability: Widows Peak 4 out of 4 (100%) H h Hh Hh h Hh Hh 20 (b) (c) Mom is heterozygous for her ability to curl her tongue (T), but dad cannot curl his tongue. Genotypes: Probability: Bb bb 2 out of 4 (50%) 2 out of 4 (50%) Phenotypes: Probability: Can Curl Tongue Cannot Curl Tongue 2 out of 4 (50%) 2 out of 4 (50%) 1 out of 4 (25%) 2 out of 4 (50%) 1 out of 4 (25%) Phenotypes: Probability: Dimpled Not Dimpled 3 out of 4 (75%) 1 out of 4 (25%) b b Bb bb b Bb bb Mom is heterozygous for dimples (D), and so is dad. Genotypes: Probability: DD Dd dd B D D d d BB Bb Bb bb 8. Using the pedigree below, label each individual with the correct genotype, determine what type of inheritance pattern is shown and explain how you came to that conclusion. This is a recessive inheritance pattern. You can Aa Aa determine this because in both Generations I (1 & 2) and II (5 & 6), neither parent has the trait, but are able to pass it on to their offspring. If the trait were dominant, the parents would have to express it. Aa Aa aa Aa aa aa The “Big Idea” AA or Aa AA or Aa Terms to KNOW & USE B.7.4 Explain the process by which a cell copies its X-rays, radioactivity, environmental chemicals, DNA and identify factors that can damage DNA and oxygen radicals, semi-conservative DNA cause changes in its nucleotide sequence. replication, DNA polymerase 9. Explain the step-by-step process that a cell uses to copy its DNA (DNA Replication). Cells make a copy of their DNA by first separating the 2 strands and then using DNA polymerase to pair nucleotides to the existing strands of DNA creating 2 new DNA molecules. This is called semi-conservative because the original strands of DNA are used as the template. After the DNA polymerase brings in new nucleotides the cell double checks then new DNA strands to make sure they are correct and then DNA double helix returns to its shape. 10. Identify factors that can damage DNA and how they can cause changes in its nucleotide sequence. Radiation, chemicals called carcinogens & mutagens, and errors in cellular processes (including DNA Replication and Transcription) can result in random changes in the DNA sequence, which are called mutations. 21 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.7.5 Explain and demonstrate how inserting, Mutation, insertion, substitution, deletion, point, substituting or deleting segments of a DNA molecule can frameshift, cancer alter a gene, which is then passed to every cell that develops from it and that the results may be beneficial, harmful or have little or no effect on the organism. 11. Compare the DNA strands in the diagram below, determine what type of mutation has occurred, explain what that means and classify it as either a point or frameshift mutation. DNA STRANDS TYPE OF DESCRIPTION POINT OR (ORIGNIAL/MUTATION) MUTATION FRAMESHIFT An extra nucleotide is A-C-G-T-A-G-G-C-T-A-G-T-G-A-A Insertion inserted causing every Frameshift other nucleotide to be shifted forward one spot. A-C-G-T-A-G-G-G-C-T-A-G-T-G-A (9th Nucleotide: Inserted “”C”) A-C-G-T-A-G-G-C-T-A-G-T-G-A-A Deletion A-C-G-T-A-G-G-C-A-G-T-G-A-A-T A-C-G-T-A-G-G-C-T-A-G-T-G-A-A A-C-G-T-A-G-G-C-T-A-T-T-G-A-A Substitution A nucleotide is removed causing every other nucleotide to be shifted back one spot. (9th Nucleotide: Removed “T”) One nucleotide is switched out with another resulting a error in that spot only. (11th Nucleotide: “T” substitutes “G”) Frameshift Point 12. Explain how and why some mutations can be passed from parents to their offspring, but others cannot. Offspring receive their genetic material from their parents gametes (sperm and egg.) If a mutation occurs in the DNA located in the sperm and/or egg, then the mutation will be present in the offspring. If a mutation happened in the somatic (body) cells then the mutation will not be passed on to the next generation. 13. What is cancer and how does it occur? Cancer is a uncontrolled growth and division of cells. It results from a mutation, which is a change in the order of nucleotides of DNA/RNA. 14. A great deal of research on the causes of and a possible cure for cancer focuses on mitosis. Why? Mitosis is the process by which cells divide. Cancer is the uncontrolled division of cells. By studying the process of mitosis, we can better understand what makes cells divide and how to stop it from happening in cancerous cells. 22 Standard 8: Evolution Core Standard Describe how biochemical, fossil, anatomical, developmental, and genetic findings are used to determine relationships among organisms, producing modern classification systems. Core Standards Describe how modern evolutionary theory provides an explanation of the history of life on earth and the similarities between organisms that exist today. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.8.1 Explain how anatomical and molecular Homologous structures, analogous structures, similarities among organisms suggests that life on earth vestigial structures, cladogram, fossil began as simple, one-celled organisms about 4 billion years ago and increasingly complex, multicellular organisms evolved later. 1. Give a description of each type of structure in the chart below and give an example of each. STRUCTURE TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE Structures that have both a similar form The arm of a human and the Homologous and function. flipper of a dolphin. Analogous Vestigial Structures that share a similar function but have a different form. Wings of a bat and wings of a moth. Structures that share a similar form, but have no real function. Hip bone of a whale. 2. Use the diagram to the right to explain how the 3 species are related. Even though the 3 structures do different things, the anatomical evidence shows that they have a similar bone structure. This would indicate that even though these species are not the same, they have common traits that were passed down to them from their ancestors. 3. Refer to the cladogram to the right. What traits do amphibians and rodents share? Vertebrae, Bony Skeletons, Four Limbs, and Amniotic Eggs. 4. Refer to the cladogram to the right. Which more closely related to crocodiles, rodents birds. Explain how you came to your conclusion. Birds and crocodiles are more closely related because they have more traits common and share a more recent common ancestor. is or in 23 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.8.2 Explain how organisms are classified and named based on their evolutionary relationships into specific taxonomic categories. 5. Fill-in the chart below with the characteristics that identify organisms in that kingdom. KINGDOM TYPE OF CELL NUMBER OF CELLS ENERGY SOURCE (Unicellular and/or Multicellular) (Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic) (Autotroph or Heterotroph) Eukaryote Multicellular Autotroph Plant Animal Eukaryote Multicellular Heterotroph Fungi Eukaryote Uni or Multicellular Heterotroph Protista Eukaryote Unicellular Auto or Heterotroph Archebacteria Prokaryote Unicellular Autotroph/Hetrotroph Eubacteria Prokaryote Unicullular Autotroph/Hetrotroph 6. List the eight modern levels of taxonomic organization in order from the group with the largest numbers of organisms to the group which is most specific and has only one kind of organism in it. Domain Most General Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species The “Big Idea” Most Specific Terms to KNOW & USE B.8.3 Use anatomical and molecular evidence to establish evolutionary relationships between organisms. 7. Using the amino acid sequences, determine which 2 organisms are most closely related and explain how you came to that conclusion. Human Amino Acid Sequence: The human and bat are more closely related. MET-PRO-VAL-THR-TYR-PHE-GLU-ASP-ASP This is supported by the fact that their amino acid sequence (which is determined by their Penguin Amino Acid Sequence: DNA) only have one amino acid different. The MET-PRO-VAL-ASP-ASP-THR-TYR-PHE-GLU more similar the DNA the more closely related organisms are. Bat Amino Acid Sequence: MET-PRO-VAL-THR-TYR-PHE-LEU-ASP-ASP Alligator Amino Acid Sequence: MET-PRO-VAL-ISO-ARG-PHE-LEU-GLU-ASP 24 The “Big Idea” B.8.4 Describe how species change over time as a result of the environmental, genetic and reproductive forces for which they are best-suited. Terms to KNOW & USE Evolution is the consequence of the interactions of: (1) the potential for a species to increase its numbers, (2) the genetic variability of offspring due to mutation and recombination of genes, (3) a finite supply of the resources required for life, and (4) the ensuing selection from environmental pressure of those organisms better able to survive and leave offspring. 8. Give a description of each driving force behind natural selection in the chart below and give an example of each. DRIVING FORCE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE Production of A species has more offspring than can Roaches have hundreds of offspring larger numbers of survive to reproductive maturity. and are well suited, but pandas have offspring few offspring. Ability to Individuals compete against each other A jaguar can fun fast and out compete compete for limited resources. other predators for food. Genetic Variation Non-Random Mating The individuals in a population have different traits ranging from color & size to strength& speed. The organisms that survive due to their fitness for the environment reproduce and pass the favorable traits to their offspring. Rabbits that have a variety of colors of fur are more likely to survive if the environment changes (Snowshoe hare.) Peacocks often mate with the male with the largest plumage. 9. How would the gene pool of a species be affected to the following responses to environmental changes? RESPONSE EFFECT ON GENE POOL Go to a place where the environmental conditions are more favorable. Migration Adaptation Death Change patterns of behavior to respond to the new environment. If an organism is unable to adapt to its environment or move to an environment in which it can survive then it will die. (IMPORTANT: Dead organisms do not reproduce.) 10. Explain the difference between convergent and divergent evolution. Convergent evolution is the process by which unrelated organisms become more and more alike due to similarities in their environmental pressures. Divergent evolution is the process by which related organisms become more and more different due to differences in their environmental pressures. 11. Explain why a population of rabbits that have been isolated by mountains may evolve in a different way than the same species that has been allowed to migrate over a large area. Isolation of a species limits their gene pool. Without new genetic variations, the mountain rabbits aren’t likely to change much over time. Migration of the other rabbits results in different environmental pressures, cause increased variation. 25 The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.8.5 Describe how organisms with beneficial traits are Survival of the fittest, natural selection, more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their environmental pressures, genetic information due to genetic variations, environmental forces and reproductive pressures. 12. Explain why Charles Darwin is considered the “Father of Evolution”, and what contributions he made to the field. In the 1830’s, a British scientist named Charles Darwin was traveling on the HMS Beagle in the Galapagos Islands. He was amazed and the diverse and unique organisms that he observed. He also noted that despite their diversity, almost all of the organisms had certain commonalities. Darwin continued to make observations and was convinced that these organisms must have some ancestral link in their past. In other words, species have the ability to change over time, and those changes can become so varied that new species can be formed as a result of these changes. This is called the theory of evolution. 13. Explain what Charles Darwin meant by the term “natural selection”. Natural selection is the process by which organisms with favorable traits survive to reproduce. He used the term “survival of the fittest, and suggested that the four driving forces to natural selection were overproduction (more offspring survive to sexual maturity), genetic variation (more options available to respond to change), struggle to survive (competition), and differential reproduction (preferred traits attract more mates.) 14. Explain why white rabbits (snowshoe hare) are commonly found in the northern parts of North America, but are not found in southern regions. The mountain rabbits are likely to evolve to be lighter in color if there is a lot of snow because they will be able to better blend in and avoid predators. They would also likely evolve to live under bushes and brush because it is difficult to burrow into the rocky coil of the mountains. Because there is more area in the other population, there is likely to be a great diversity in the organisms because there is a greater diversity of environmental pressures. The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.8.6 Explain how genetic variation within a population (i.e., a species) can be attributed to mutations as well as random assortments of existing genes. (See Standard 7) The “Big Idea” Terms to KNOW & USE B.8.7 Describe the modern scientific theory of the fossil record, anatomical similarities, origins and history of life on earth and evaluate the homologous structures, DNA, nucleotide evidence that supports it. sequence 15. Describe the modern scientific theory of the origins of life on earth and describe 3 types of evidence that is used to support it. Modern scientific theory suggests that life begin in the harsh oceans of early earth as singlecelled prokaryotes that, over time, evolved and became more complex. Ultimately, that means that all organisms can be traced back to a common ancestor. Scientists use the fossil record to show relationships between species of different eras. They use biochemical analysis to show similarities and differences in the DNA of related organisms. They also use anatomical and embryological evidence to show that seemingly unrelated organisms develop and function in very similar ways. 26