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LECTURE JAN 23, 2003
Introduction and Definition of
Motivation

What is motivation?
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Motivation is what makes an individual put forth
some amount of effort in a specific direction.
Any attempt to measure motivation must be
inferential because it cannot be measured directly.
What is motivation? ...
–
It is generally concluded that motivation is based on
NEEDS
 Needs
refer to deficiencies that a person
experiences.
 Needs energize behaviors
– i.e. the need for money can lead to
good work performance.
A Classification System for Specific
Motivational Theories
Content Theories

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Focus on what arouses or initiate an individual’s behavior.
The specific “things” that motivate people.
Four major content theories
1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
2. Aldefer’s ERG theory
3. McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
4. Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
All four are based on needs.
Process Theories

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Skeptical of Content Theories because they place little
emphasis on what actions people will choose to satisfy
their needs.
Process theories attempt to explain and describe the
process of how people start, direct, sustain, and stop
behavior.
They are concerned with factors that increase the
likelihood desired behavior will be repeated.
Process Theories Cont.

The four major Process Theories are...
1. Expectancy Theory
2. Equity Theory
3. Goal Setting
4. Reinforcement

The discussion today will center on Content
Theories
Content Theories of Motivation

Maslow’s Need Hierarchy - one of the most widely discussed
theories
– The essence of Maslow’s Need Hierarchy is that basic human
needs are organized into a HIERARCHY of 5 needs
1. Physiological
2. Safety
3. Affiliation
4. Esteem
5. Self actualization
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy....
–
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Gives 2 insights into motivation
 Specifies what goals people value at specific times
 Suggest what types of behaviors will influence the
fulfillment of those needs.
 The theory, however, provides no explanation as to how
needs originate.
Need fulfillment varies on age, sex, race, size and type of
company and culture.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Alderfer agrees with Maslow that individuals have needs that are
arranged in a hierarchy.
–
However, only involves 3 levels of needs:
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1. Existence - these are needs that are satisfied by such
things as food, air, water, pay, and working conditions.
2. Relatedness - these needs are satisfied by meaningful
social and interpersonal relationships.
3. Growth - these needs are satisfied by making creature
or productive contributions.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory…

Differs from Maslow in several ways
– 3 instead of 5 needs
E needs = physiological and safety needs
R needs = belongingness, social and love needs
G needs = esteem and self actualization
Alderfer’s ERG Theory…
–
Differ on how people move through the
different sets of needs.
Maslow relied on prepotency idea.
Alderfer suggested that in addition to
the satisfaction progression process,
a frustration-regression process also
occurred.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory …

Suggestions to managers about employee
behavior
–
If a manger observes that an employees higher
order needs are being blocked, because of a
company policy or rule, then it is in the manager’s
best interest to redirect the employee’s efforts
toward relatedness or existence needs.
McClelland’s Learned Needs
Theory
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Need for Power Npow
Need for Affiliation Naff
Need for Achievement Nach
McClelland’s Learned Needs
Theory...
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These needs are learned early and are hard to
change.
Most research and focus on Nach--Profile of
high Nach
Nach - applied
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McClelland made the following suggestions
about developing a positive high Nach - That is
a high Nach where there is no fear of success.
Nach - applied
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Arrange tasks so they receive periodic
feedback
Seek goo models of achievement
Modify self-image
Control their imagination
Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory
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2 continua were needed - satisfaction had 2
dimensions
Dissatisfiers - extrinsic, not job
related
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Hygiene factors (pay, supervision, company
policies, co-workers)
Lead to a neutral state of motivation,
satisfaction, and performance
Satisfier’s - intrinsic, job related
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Motivator Factors (achievement,
advancement, recognition)
Result in a high state of motivation,
satisfaction, and performance
Original Research was based on a survey of
200 accountants and engineers
Asked questions like
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When did you feel good about your job?
When did you feel bad about your job?
Grouped these experiences into satisfiers and
dissatisfiers?
Problems
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Based on accountants and engineers
– limited sample of non-people oriented jobs
Oversimplification of satisfaction concept
– satisfaction resides in both intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of the
job.
Methodology
– when people are asked to recall things they do not remember
everything. People are prone to primary and recency effects
etc.
No research to test the theory was done by Herzberg
Most important contribution of Herzberg’s
Theory...
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Stimulated thought about MOTIVATION AT
WORK
Maslow and McClelland’s theories
were based on lab research and
clinical judgments.
– Showed importance of considering the
motivation of people at work.
–
Application of Need Theories

suggests that managers should be sensitive to the
differences and desires among their employees since
each one is unique.
– One example of the application of need theories is
the modified work week.
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i.e. flex time, 4 day work week, etc.
Research on modified work weeks
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14 studies - 9 related to job satisfaction
–
5 of those showed job satisfaction to be improved.
Process Theories of Motivation
Process theories attempt to explain and describe
how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and
stopped.

4 major process theories
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Reinforcement
Goal setting
Equity
Expectancy
Process theories incorporate the
learning process
Background on learning...

Learning is one of the fundamental processes
underlying behavior.
–
most of the behavior within organizations is learned
behavior.
 i.e.
perceptions, attitudes, goals, and
emotional reactions are learned.
Learning defined...
 Process
by which a relatively
enduring change in behavior occurs
as a result of practice.
Types of learning - 3 types
considered here...

Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
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Association learning
Conditioned stimulus paired with unconditioned
stimulus
 Conditioned response and unconditioned
response.
Types of learning ...
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Operant Conditioning - B.F. Skinner
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concerned with learning that is a consequence of
behavior
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The sequence of events is independent of the individual’s
behavior.
Behaviors that can be controlled by reinforcers or
punishers are called operants.
An operant is strengthened or weakened by the events that
follow it.
Types of learning...
 Most
workplace behaviors are operants
– i.e. job related tasks
 Difference between Operant and Classical
conditioning is that in classical conditioning the
desired behavior is already present; however, in
operant it is not necessarily
present.
– No identifiable stimulus that evokes the
behavior.
Types of learning...

Observational Learning
–
Learning by observing other’s actions
 Has a lot of potential especially for training
programs
– Improves communication skills etc.
Process theories of Motivation...
Reinforcement Theory - Behavior is
influenced by its consequences
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Based on Skinner’s work with Operant
Conditioning
When Operant Conditioning principles are applied to
individuals it is called Behavior Modification
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In an organizational setting it is called OB modification.
Defined as the systematic reinforcement of desirable
organizational behavior and the nonreinforcement of
undesirable org. behavior.
Reinforcement Theories...
Important Principles

Reinforcement - anything that both increases the strength
and frequency of behavior.
–
Reinforcers are often used to alter behavior in organizations.
– however, one must make the reinforcement contingent on the
desired behavior.
– Also, the reinforcement must come close enough after the
behavior so the association is made.
Alarm clock, we don’t se a lot of negegavie reinforcement.
Reinforcement Theories...
 Negative
Reinforcement
– refers to an increase in the frequency
of a response following removal of a
negative reinforcer immediately after
the response. An event is a negative
reinforcer only if its removal increases
the probability of future behavior.
Reinforcement Theories...
Punishment - an uncomfortable
consequence of a particular behavioral
response. The presence of the
punishment decreases future behavior.
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Is punishment as affective as positive and
negative reinforcement?
Research on punishment shows...
1. Results of punishment are not as predictable
2. Less permanent
3. Accompanied by negative attitudes toward the
administrator of the punishment as well as to the
activity that led to the punishment
Is it as affect as reinforcement………….not really because it is not predictable.
Sometimes it is necessary to punish.
Needs to be consistent.
*varies on reinforcement schedules
*
Reinforcement Theories ...
Extinction
The reduction of undesirable
behaviors
– caused
by withholding reinforcement
– usually causes a general fading of the
behavior.
Reinforcement Theories...
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All four principles of Behavior Modification
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Base on Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Of several responses to the same
situation, those that are accompanied or
closely followed by satisfaction
(reinforcement) will be more likely to
recur, those which are accompanied or
closely followed by discomfort will be less
likely occur.
Reinforcement Theories ...
2. Reinforcement Schedules
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The timing of reinforcement is critical to the strengthening
of behavior.
– This timing is referred to as reinforcement scheduling.
Continuous and intermittent schedules produce differences
in behavior.
– Continuous reinforcement accelerates early
performance and intermittent schedules are better at
maintaining behaviors
Reinforcement Theories ...
3. A Managerial Perspective on OB modification
 Behavioral mod. assumes that behavior is more
important than its psychological causes.
Very little GOOD research on Reinforcement
theories.
Reinforcement Theories...
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4. Research on Reinforcement Theory
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limited # of field studies with small samples of org.
specific
Often found unexpected findings
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i.e. continuous reinforcement yield the highest levels of
performance. Especially with pay.
Most popular field study at Emery
Air Freight
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Their approach
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1. Regularly inform employees how well they were
meeting specific goals
2. Reward improvement with praise and recognition.
The goal was to increase the use of containers for
shipping. (i.e. grouping parcels marked for same
address) from 45 to 90 percent
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Increase capacity to reduce rates for clients
Results showed an increase from 45 to 90%.
Savings=500,000 in first year and 2 million over 3
years.
However, effects diminished over time.
The use of praise, recognition, and feed back became
routine.
Emery changed the reinforces to luncheons,
promotion, etc. and performance again increased.
Reinforcement Theories...
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Criticisms of OB mod
Criticized on several grounds
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There is no “real change in behavior and people are
essentially being bribed.
Doesn’t consider a person’s beliefs, values, or mental
processes- too simplistic
Doesn’t account for observational learning, imitation, etc.
Behavior becomes dependent on the reinforcer (i.e. pay)
and will not be performed in the absence of the reinforcer.
Very strong part of performanceSetting mutual agreeable goals between
manager and subordinate.
Goals are very strong motivators.
Setting challenges………..is good! People
like a challenge!!!!
Goal Setting - Locke
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A cognitive process whereby an individuals
conscious goals and intentions are the primary
determinants of behavior.
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Locke observed that one of the most commonly
observed characteristics of intentional behavior is
that it tends to keep going until it reaches
completion.
Goal Setting - Locke
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Description Goal Setting
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A goal is the object of an action.
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i.e. cut costs by 3,000
Locke uses Frederick Taylor’s ideas about goals in
the work place
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Taylor assigned each person a challenging but attainable
goal based on the results of time and motion studies.
The methods needed to achieve the goal were spelled out
in detail.
Reduce turnover=specific
increase morale=not specific
Goal Setting ...
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Locke described three attributes of the Cognitive
Process that occurs during goal setting.
 1. Goal Specificity
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degree of quantitative precision (clarity) of the goal.
2. Goal Difficulty is the degree of proficiency or level
of performance that is sought.
Should be difficult but not impossible.
Don’t allow people to sandbag.
Goal Setting - Locke Cont.
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3. Goal intensity or commitment is the process of
setting the or deciding how to reach it.
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Not studied much
Your book leave it out
Other researchers talk about goal
commitment instead - Amount of effort used
to reach the goal.
Key Steps in applying goal setting
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Diagnose for readiness of goal setting.
Prepare employees by increasing interpersonal
interaction, communication, training, and action
plans for goal setting.
Emphasizing the attributes of the goals that
should be understood by a manager and
subordinates.
Key Steps in applying goal
setting...
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Conducting intermediate reviews to make
necessary adjustments in established goals.
Review to check the goals set, modified and
accomplished.
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All steps are needed if Goal setting is to be an
effective motivating technique.
Goal Setting Research
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Specific goals lead to higher output than do
ambiguous ones
Research on Goal difficulty
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Generally believed that the more difficult the goal
the higher the performance.
Equity Theory - Adams
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The essence of Equity Theory is that
employees compare their effort and rewards
with those of others in similar work situations.
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based on the assumption that individuals are
motivated by a desire to be equitably treated at
work.
Four Important Terms
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Person - The individual for whom equity or inequity is
perceived.
Comparison Other - Any group or persons used by
the person as a reference regarding the ratio of input
and outcomes.
Inputs - The individual characteristics brought by the
person to the job. These may be achieved (i.e. skills,
experience, learning) or ascribed (i.e. age, sex, race)
Outcomes - What the person received from the job
Equity exists when employees
perceive that the ratios of their
inputs (efforts) to their outcomes
(rewards) are equivalent to the ratios
of other employees.
Equity Theory diagrammed

Equity
Outputs/Inputs = CP Outputs/Inputs
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Overpayment
Outputs/Inputs > CP Outputs/Inputs
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Underpayment
Outputs/Inputs < CP Outputs/Inputs
What can be done to restore
equity?
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Change inputs - put less effort or time on the
job.
Change outputs - produce more/pay more
Change attitudes - change attitude about the
job. “I put in enough time at work.”
What can be done to restore
equity?
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Change the reference person
Change inputs or outputs of reference person.
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i.e. Coworker - ask them to slow sown or quit being
a rate buster or sabotage others work
Change the situation
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i.e. quit or get transferred.
Each of these methods is designed
to reduce or change the discomfort
of inequity. Equity theory proposes
that when inequity exists, a person
will be motivated to take one of
those steps.
Research on Equity
 Most research has focused on pay as the basic
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outcome.
– The failure to investigate other relevant outcomes
limits the application of the theory.
Some researchers have questioned whether or not
over payment or over rewarding leads to a state of
inequity.
Most research focuses on short-term comparisons
Expectancy Theory

One of the most popular explanations of
motivation. Over 50 studies have been
conducted testing expectancy theory’s ability to
predict behavior.
Vroom defines motivation as a
process governing choices among
alternative forms of voluntary
activity.
Key terms of Simplified Version
First and Second Level Outcome

First level outcomes are those that result from doing
the job itself.
– These include productivity, quality, absenteeism,
turnover, etc.
– Second level outcomes are those events (rewards
or punishments” that the first level outcomes are
likely to produce (i.e. merit pay, group acceptance,
promotions)
Instrumentality
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Perception by the individual that first-level
outcomes will be associated with second level
outcomes.
Asks - If I succeed what outcomes will I
receive?
Values range from 0 to 1
Expectancy
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Refers to individual’s belief that a particular
behavior will be followed by a particular
outcome.
–
Values range from 0 to 1
Valence
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Refers to the value you attack to an outcome
Values range from -1 to 0 to 1.
–
-i.e. value of promotion, pay raise etc.
Porter - Lawler Integrated Model of
Motivation
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An expansion of the Expectancy Model to
examine the factors that influence an
employees job performance and satisfaction.
The Components of the PorterLawler Model
1. Value of Reward (Similar to
valence)

The value of the reward reflects the individual’s
state on need satisfaction
–
Rewards come in the form of friendship with
coworkers, raises, promotions, feeling of
accomplishment
2. Perceived Effort - Reward
Relationships
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Refers to the person’s expectations that given
amounts of reward depend upon given
amounts of effort.
3. Effort
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Refers to the amount of energy a person exerts
in any situation, that is, how hard the person is
trying.
–
effort is just the energy expended and not whether
the effort is successful or not.
4. Abilities and Traits
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According to Porter and Lawler effort and
motivation does not directly lead to
performance but is mediated by individual
abilities and role perceptions.
Abilities and Traits refer to individual
characteristics like intelligence, manual skills,
and personality
5. Role Perceptions
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Refer to the kinds of activities people believe
are necessary to perform the job successfully.
–
They deal with how the employee defines their job
and the types of effort they feel are essential for
effective performance.
6. Performance
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The combination of the value of rewards and
the perceived effort-reward relationship creates
expectancies about performance.
Performance comes after effort (motivation)
has been exerted. Depend on the amount of
effort exerted, their abilities, and their role
perceptions
7. Rewards
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These are desirable outcomes
Extrinsic Rewards - Job Related
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Given by the organization in the form of
supervision, pay, status, working conditions,
security, fringe benefits.
Intrinsic Rewards
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Administered by the individual themselves and
include such things as achievement, selfrecognition, the work itself, responsibility, and
personal growth.
Research has shown that Intrinsic rewards are
much more likely to produce higher job
satisfaction.
Perceived Equitable Rewards
(from equity theory)

Refers to the amount of rewards people feel
they should receive as the result of a given
level of performance.
9. Satisfaction

Refers to the person’s attitude on internal
state. To the degree that perceived equitable
rewards exceed actual rewards, a person is
dissatisfied.
Satisfaction is important for TWO
reasons
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As the Porter-Lawler model points out,
satisfaction is only partially determined by the
actual rewards received.
It also depends on what the individual feels
that the organization should reward them for a
given level of performance.
Managerial Implications of the
Porter-Lawler Model

Implications have to do with ways to motivate
employees to achieve good performance.
1. Managers should figure out what
outcomes each employee values

This can be accomplished through
questionnaires, observing employees reaction
to different rewards, or just asking employees
outright.
2. To motivate others, managers should
determine what kinds of performance they
desire.

Managers must define good performance and
adequate performance in terms that are
measurable
3. Managers should make sure desired
performance levels are reachable
•
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According to the model, motivation is
determined by both expectancy and
instrumentality.
If employees feel the levels of performance are
too high, motivation to perform will be low.
4. Managers should directly link the outcomes
desired by employees (pay and promotion) to
specific performances desired by management
•
employees need to see a good example of the
reward process in work.
5. Managers should analyze the entire
situation for conflicts
•
Even after setting up high expectancies
managers must survey the situation to see that
their are no group norms (informal) that are in
conflict with good performance (i.e. Binging)
6. Managers should make sure changes in
outcomes or rewards are sufficiently large
to motivate significant behavior
•
Rewards should not be trivial
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JND’s