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ap exam review: key terms, people, concepts history & approaches 2-4% people: mary whiton calkins – 1st apa female pres. charles darwin – nat. sel., evolution, origin of species dorothea dix – mental hospitals revolution in us sigmund freud – pa g. stanley hall – 1st to describe adolescence “storm & stress ` william james – father of psych in us ivan pavlov – discovered cc jean piaget – cognitive research/schemas, stages carl rogers – humanistic/ upr bf skinner – oc/ behaviorist margaret floy washburn –1st female phd/ 2nd female apa john b watson – cc & emotions (little albert)/ parenting & advertising wilhelm wundt -- introspection– father of scientific psych – 1st psych lab – structuralism – also titchener philosophy shaped early psych: aristotle/plato descartes locke – tabula rasa early years: structuralism functionalism behaviorism – pavlov discovery later: gestalt pa/psychodynamic behaviorism – oc & skinner humanism contemporary: evolutionary biological cognitive psych domains: biological clinical cognitive counseling developmental educational experimental human factors industrial-organizational personality psychometric social william james: principles of psychology – 1st text – functionalism gestalt psych – (max wertheimer) – examine person’s total experience & context – perception more than just parts of whole approaches/perspectives – you are who you are because … behaviorism – 1920-1960s dominates (conditioning) ivan pavlov & classical cond. (stimuli & response) john watson & little albert – adds to pavlov operant conditioning (reinforcement & punishment) – bf skinner (operant chamber/ skinner’s box) humanistic – 60s & 70s – hippies maslow (hierarchy of needs) rogers (grow oak trees) free will and indiv choices humans are good psychoanalysis/psychodynamics sigmund freud & neofreudians unconscious mind – (id, ego, superego) conflict and motivations dream analysis repression, anxiety, and defense mechanisms biological/biopsychology/neuroscience cognition and human reactions may be caused by genes inherited, hormones, neurotransmitters, brain -- brain imaging evolutionary charles darwin – origin of species – natural selection – we’ve evolved cognitive thinking and feeling self talk and slef attributions change thoughts – change mood look at how interpret, process, and remember socio-cultural/multicultural look at how thoughts and behaviors vary across cultures research methods – 8-10% types of research: (purpose, strengths, weaknesses) experiments correlational studies survey research naturalistic observations case studies research design determines conclusions that can be made – experiments use for c&e – use experimental controls to reduce alternative explanations (intervening variables) experimental design: rely upon operational definitions & measurement in behavioral research independent variable vs dependent variable confounding variables – limit confidence & validity control variables random selection/sample (surveys & correlations) vs random assignment descriptive statistics interpret graphs central tendency =mean, median, mode standard deviation inferential statistics ethical issues – inform & constrain research ethical guidelines: -- protect participants & promote sound ethical practice apa federal regulations local/university institutional review boards terms: hindsight bias, applied vs basic research, experiments – (cause & effect) independent vs dependent variable, experimental vs control group (hawthorne effect – affect performance just by selecting exper. group), placebo, placebo effect, experimenter bias, subject bias, confounding variables, random sampling, random assignment (controls for participant-relevant confounding variables/response or participant bias like demand characteristics or social desirability answers), single & double blinds, group matching, stratified sampling, sample, generalization of results (use random & representative samples) , hypothesis (can’t be proven), theory, operational definition, validity, reliability, replication, participants/subjects, confederates, population, representative, random selection (pick from hat), situation-relevant confounding variables, laboratory vs field experiments correlational studies – does not imply causation, positive or negative correlation, ex post facto study, if no relationship b/w 2 variables, then no correlation, strong or weak (correlation coefficient -- -1 to +1 / 0 means no cor.) correlation graphed w/ scatter plot & line of best fit or regression line surveys – low response rate, not always truthful naturalistic observation – in natural habitat, vs field experiment case study – small group but more detail descriptive statistics –(simply describe set of data) stats include frequency distribution like frequency polygons (line graphs) or histograms (bar graphs), y-axis – vertical, x-axis – horizontal, measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), extreme scores or outliers skew distributions, positively skewed – contains more low scores than high ones, negatively skewed – contains more high scores than low, range, variance, standard deviation (square root of the variance) – the higher the more spread out the distribution is (from the mean), z scores (distance from mean in standard deviation units) – negative z score vs positive z scores, normal curve – bell shape (68% of scores fall withi 1 standard dev. of mean, 95% w/in 2 s.d., 99% w/in 3 s.d.), percentiles – distance of score from 0 – 90 percentile above 90% of people inferential statistics – purpose: to determine whether findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was selected, sampling error (sample differs from population – can’t generalize), use t tests, anovas, manovas to test (look at magnitude in difference b/w exper & control group and size of sample) – all yield p value (smaller values = more significant resluts – p value of .05 means that a 5% chance exist that the results occurred by chance – never get p value of zero) apa ethical guidelines – academic research must be 1st propose to ethics/ institutional review board (irb), animals – a) clear scientific purpose, b) care for and house in humane way, c) acquire subjects legally (usually from accredited company), d) least amount of suffering feasible humans – a) voluntary participation (no coercion), b) informed consent, c) anonymity/confidentiality, d) no significant menatl or physical risk (esp. long term), e) debriefing longitudinal studies – developmental psych cross-sectional studies – across culture & society biological bases of behavior 8 – 10 % people: paul broca – broca’s area charles darwin – evolution michael gazzaniga – split brain research roger sperry – split-brain research & function carl wernicke – wernicke’s area research strategies: case studies split brain research imaging – cat(computerized axial tomography = brain x-ray), pet (positron emission tomography – glucose = functioning areas), mri (magnetic resonance imaging = only structure), f-mri (function = blood flow), eeg (brain waves = consciousness & sleep) surgical – lesioning, psychosurgery, accidents (phineas gage) neuroanatomy (neuron parts) dendrites, soma (cell body) axons, terminal branches/buttons, myelin sheath, synapse (synaptic gap/cleft) types of neurons – sensory/afferent, interneurons, motor/efferent working of neuron – electrochemical process, action potential, resting potential, sodium potassium pump, all-or-none law, refractory period neurotransmitters – acetylcholine (motor movement function – lack = alzheimer’s), dopamine (motor movement & alertness -lack = parkinson, too much = schizophrenia), endorphins (pain control – addictions), serotonin ( mood control – lack = clinical depression), epinephrine &norepinephrine) nervous system – peripheral vs central (spinal cord & brain = reflexes), autonomic (autopilot – fight or flight) vs somatic (voluntary muscle movement), sympathetic (alert/aroused) vs parasympathetic (calming) brain parts: hindbrain (top part of spinal cord – life support) medulla (blood pressure, hr, breathing) pons (connects hind w/mid & forebrain – facial expressions) reticular formation/reticular activating system – (arousal, focus attention, w/o deep coma) midbrain – simple movements, sensory info w/ muscle movement thalamus – processing center hypothalamus – temp, libido, hunger, thirst, biological rhythms, endocrine system amygdala – emotion & anger hippocampus – memory processing limbic system (thalamus, hypothal, amyg, hippo -emotion & memory) forebain – (thought & reasoning) cerebral cortex – gray, wrinkled (fissures), layers of neurons hemispheres (cross wired= contralateral control), brain lateralization hemispheric specialization, split-brain patients – corpus callosum (cut for epilepsy) – can’t orally report info only presented to right left – logical & sequential tasks,spoken lang. right – spatial & creative tasks cerebral cortex – 8 diff lobes (4 in each hemisphere = f, p, t, o) association areas – judgement, humor frontal lobes (behind eyes)—anterior lobe (prefrontal cortex) deals w/planning, maintaining emotional contral, pursuing goals, phineas gage), broca’s area – muscle movement to produce speech, motor cortex – signals to muscles – top part controls feet & toes and upward parietal lobes – sensory cortex/somato-senory cortex = receives incoming touch sensations, top gets messages from bottom of body and so on occipital lobes – interpret meessages from eyes in our visual cortex, images from right half of each retina processed in visual cortex in right occip. lobe temporal lobes – auditory cortex = not lateralized = use both hemispheres, wernicke’s area = interpret, written & spoken speech/meaning brain plasticity – brain adapts to other functions, dendrites (esp. children) make new connections in diff part to take over for damaged part of brain endocrine system – hypothalamus controls, hormomes (slower but longer), pituitary gland (master & growth, adrenal gland = epinephrine & norepinephrine (hr & blood pres) gonads (ovaries & testes) sex hormones = estrogen & testoterone genetics – punnet square (rr, rr, rr, rr) – mendel & peas, nature, 23 pairs of chromosomes (46), dna = genetic material making up choromsomes (control some traits), segments = genes (dominant vs recessive) twins – identical (monozygotic), thomas bouchard – separated identical twins study – genes matter, criticism = have same effective psychological environment b/c look same so treated similar in life chromosomes – xy (boy), xx (girl), father gives, abnormalities = turner’s syndrome (only single x where 23rd pair should be – shortness & diff phys sexual development), klinefelter’s syndrome (xxy= minimal sexual dev. & introversion, down syndrome = extra choromsome on 21st pair = mental retardation & physical appearance, pku – enzyme abnormality heredity,environment,and evolution work together sensation & perception 6-8% people: gustav fechner – fechner’s law david hubel & torsten wiesel – vision nobel prize, feature detectors ernst weber – weber’s law torsten wiesel – sensory deprivation (seeing) long term effects sensory transduction (stimuli signals transformed into neural impulses), sensory adaptation (decreased responsiveness), sensory habituation (how fouced we are about them), cocktail-party phenomenon (involuntarily pay attention), sensation (activation of senses like eyes & ears), perception (understanding sensations) vision (dominant sense) – light intensity = how bright appears light wavelength = hue we see (longer than we can see are infrared, microwaves, radio waves; shorter are ultraviolet & x-rays) – longest to shortest – roy g. biv; objects color appearance b/c reflect that wavelength eye – cornea (protects & helps focus the light), pupil (muscles are iris – dilate to let more light in), accomodation (process of focusing light), lens (curved & flexible to focus), image is flipped upside down and inverted & then projected on retina (screen on back of eye) transduction – (translate incoming stimuli into neural signals – other senses as well) happens when light activates neurons in retina including cones (activated by color, more in center of retina) & rods (black & white, more 20 to 1, peripheral, night vision), fovea centralis (lots of cones, focus spot), next bipolar cells activated, then ganglion cells fire, axons of ganglion cells = optic nerve – send impulses to thalamus part called the lateral geniculate nucleus (lgn) – then sent to visual cortex in occipital lobe, blind spot (optic nerve leaves retina – no rods or cones) optic nerve – 2 parts to diff hemispheres, optic chiasm (where nerves cross each other) inside brain – impulses activate feature detectors (groups of neurons in visual cortex that respond to diff types of visual images) ex: vertical lines/curves/motion, visual impairment theories of color trichromatic -(cones detect blue, red, green), opponent-process theory – red/green, blue/yellow, black/white sensory receptors in pairs – if one is stimulated, its pair is inhibited from firing – explains dichromatic color blindness, monochromatic color blindness (only gray), afterimages hearing – sound waves & transduction amplitude – height of wave (loudness – decibels) frequency – length of wave (pitch – megahertz), high-pitched = high freq = waves densely packed together ear parts – pinna (outer ear), ear canal/auditory canal, eardrum/tympanic membrane, ossicles bones (hammer/malleus, anvil/incus, stirrup/stapes), oval window, cochlea (snail shell w/fluid), basilar membrane (floor of cochlea), lined w/hair cells (connected to organ of corti – neurons activated by hair cells movement), fluid moves = hair cells move = transduction, impulses to brain via auditory nerve pitch theories place theory – hair cells respond to diff freq of sound based on where located in cochlea (upper tones) frequency theory – lower tones – rate at which cells fire – hair cells fire at diff rate (freq) in the cochlea deafness conduction deafness (problem conduction sound to cochlea) nerve/sensorineural deafness – hair cells damaged (by loud noise) – don’t regenerate touch – some nerve endings respond to pressure, others temp, nerve ending concentrated in certain areas, if touch or temp receptors stimulated sharply then pain receptors will also fire gate-control theory – pain messages high priority so nerve “gates” swing wide open and shut for low priority messages – allow you to focus on message, endorphins (brain pain killers) & opiates (morphine) also swing gate shut chemical senses (taste & smell) taste/gustation – chemicals in food absorbed by taste buds on tongue (located on papillae – bumps on tongue), types – sweet, salty, sour, bitter, & maybe umami, some taste buds respond more intensely to specific taste and more weakly to others, more densly packed taste buds = more chemicals absorbed = more intense tasting food, food flavor = combination of taste & smell smell/olfaction – chemicals emitted by substances nose, nostril, mucous membrane, absorbed by olfactory receptor cells, olfactory bulb straight to limbic system of brain (amygdala and hippocampus – emotion and memory = powerful trigger for memories), anosmia (burnt out receptors), pheromones (natural chemicals), context driven body position senses vestibular senses – how body is oriented in space by 3 semicircular canals filled w/fluid in inner ear (provide feedback on body orientation), if fluid moves so much brain receives confusing signals = dizziness & nausea kinesthetic sense – feedback on position and orientation of specific body parts (arm, leg), receptors in muscles and joints send info to brain perception – psychophysics (study interaction b/w sensations receive and experience of them) absolute threshold – smallest amount of stimulus we can detect subliminal stimuli (below absolute threshold) – most messaging not scientifically supported difference threshold/just noticeable difference (smallestamount of change needed in a stimulus before we detect a change) weber’s law (computes jnd) – change needed is proportional to the original intensity of stimulus) weber’s constants differ for senses – hearing 5%, vision 8% perceutual theories signal detection theory – takes into account how motivated we are to detect certain stimuli & what expect to perceive (factors caled response criteria/receiver operating characteristics), false positive – think perceive stimulus that is not there false negative – no perceiving stimulus that is present top-down processing – perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense (use background knowledge to help) schemata (mental representations of how expect the world to be) create perceptual set (predispostion of perceiving something in certain way) – backmasking (70s b/c expected bad messages); makes you vulnerable to illusions bottom-up processing/feature analysis – use only features of the object itself to build a complete perception – put characteristics together to get perception of object – automatic process – feature detectors in visual cortex – longer but more accurate culture & experience influence perception – perceptual set, context effects role of attention rules of visual perception & optical illusions figure-ground relationship – figure vs background gestalt rules – perceive images as groups not isolated elements proximity – close = group similarity – similar = group continuity – continuous form = group closure – fill in gaps = group constancy size (closer = bigger but know same object) shape (diff angles/diff view but know same object) brightness – see as being constant color even as light reflects off object diff perceived motion stroboscopic effect – flip books – series of pics phi phenomenon – lights turning on/off see motion autokinetic effect – spot on light on wall in dark room – stare at – appears to move depth cues & depth perception eleanor gibson & visual cliff experiment monocular cues – linear perspective, relative size cue, interposition cue (blocks other object = must be closer), texture gradient, shadowing binocular cues – binocular disparity/retinal disparity (closer object more disparity b/w images from each eye), convergence (closer to face – eyes move towards each other to keep focus) muller-lyer illusion – lines w/arrows esp (6th sense) – no scientific proof – telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, psychokinesis states of consciousness 2-4% people: william james – sigmumd freud ernest hilgard dualism vs monism (mind & body) consciousness – awareness about ourselves and environment – diff states not on/off , states (daydreaming, dreaming, awake, hypnosis, hallucination, meditation freud & levels – conscious, pre, un evidence that there are levels -- mere exposure effect, priming, blind sight levels--conscious level, nonconscious level (heart, digestion, breathing), preconscious level (not thinking about but could be/preconscious memory), subconscious level (priming & mere exposure effect), unconscious level (psychoanalytics believe in this) sleep – one of the states of consciousness (not unconscious), circadian rhythm (24hr metobolic &thought pattern) & sleep cycle (use eeg to examine) sleep stages sleep onset – falling asleep drowsy but awake – alpha waves (mild hallucinations) stage 1 – fall asleep 1 & 2 – theta waves (high freq, low amplitude) stage 2 – sleep spindles (short burst of rapid brain waves) 3 & 4 – delta sleep (slow wave) – deeper & less aware of environment, important for replenishing body’s chemicals, growth, & immune go backwards thru 3 , 2, 1 rem –intense brain activity like when awake, paradoxcal sleep, dreams (but any stage), memory, rem rebound 90 minute stages 4 to 7 times /night, close to morning less time in 3 & 4, babies more rem sleep disorders insomnia (10%), caffeine problem narcolepsy (suddenly fall into rem sleep) sleep apnea – stop breathing wake up slightly and don’t know it, overweight men night terrors – children, stage 4 sleep sleep walking – somnambulism – kids dreams freud – manifest vs latent content activation-synthesis theory – brain intepreting what is happening physiologically during rem information-processing theory – dealing w/daily stress and info during rem hypnosis posthypnotic amnesia—forget hypnotized events posthypnotic suggestions hypnotic suggestibility -role theory – act out role state theory – altered state of consciousness (pain control) dissociation theory – ernest hilgard – voluntarily divided consciousness & hidden observer level monitors what is happening – hand in ice (no pain) but lift finger if any part of them felt pain psychotherapy drugs – psycchoactive drugs – chemicals change chemistry of brain agonists – mimic neurotransmitters antagonists – block neurotransmitters reuptake inhibitors drug dependence tolerance – drug takes place of natural neurotransmitter addiction withdrawal & symptoms stimulants (caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines, nicotine) – speed up processes include. ans (hr, breathing), leads to euphoria (concaine), side effects – disturbed sleep, reduce appetite, anxiety, heart problems) depressants – slow down (alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics/tranquilizers/antianxiety drugs) valium, alcohol – inhibits judgement, cerebellum (motor coordination) hallucinogens (psychodelics) – sensory hallucinations, identity loss, vivid fantasies (lsd, peyote, mushrooms, marijuana), remain in body for weeks – add a little – more profound effect – reverse tolerance opiates – morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine, opium (poppy plant), agonists for endorphins – painkillers & mood elevators, drowsiness & euphoria, very addictive b/c rapid brain chemistry change learning 7-9% people: albert bandura john garcia – bio predisposed for certain learning ivan pavlov robert rescorla – contingency model of cc/cognition & expectancy bf skinner edward thorndike edward tolman john b watson cc versus oc vs observational learing -- diff long lasting change in behavior resulting from experience classical condidtioning – pavlov – learn to assoc. stimuli w/responses -unconditioned stimulus (us/ucs), unconditioned response (ur/ucr), neutral stimulus & pairing, conditioned stimulus (cs), conditioned response (cr) acquistion learning delayed conditioning (ns before/during us) most effective trace conditioning (ns short break us) backward conditioning ( us then ns – ineffective) simultaneous conditioning (ns & us – same time) extinction – cs no longer elicits cr spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, john watson/rosalie rayner & little albert (cc for humans as well) aversive conditioning – nail biting learned helplessness – martin seligman (dog and shock floor) second-order/higher order conditioning – using cs as a us to condition a response to new stimulus (shaping & chaining) biology & cc – learned taste aversions – strong & unusual tastes garcia & koelling’s experiment illustrating biological preparedness in classical conditioning operant conditioning – assoc. consequences w/behavior, edward thorndike – cat & puzzle box, law of effect (if consequences of behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response (s-r) connection will be strengthened and likelihood of the behavior will increase & the opposite for unpleasant – thorndike – instrumental learning bf skinner – coined oc, skinner box & animal learning, positive vs negative reinforcement (escape learning vs avoidance learning), positive punishment vs negative punishment/omission training shaping for desired behavior, chaining for linking separate behaviors to complex activity extinction, acquistion, spont recovery, generalization, discrimination primary reinforcers vs secondary reinforcers (including generalized reinforcers like money – token economy) premack principle – reinforcing propertie s of something depends on the situation and individual reinforcement schedules continuous reinf vs partial reinf. schedule partial – more resistant to extinction ratio schedules= number of responses made interval schedules = passage of time fixed schedules = constant variable schedules = changing fixed ratio (fr) – reinf. after set # of responses variable-ratio (vr) – reinf. after varying # of times – never know when – slot machines fixed interval (fi)– set amount of time – paycheck variable interval (vi) – varying amount of time variable usually use an average number for lab biology & oc – instinctive drift – pig w/coing observational learning – albert bandura (social learning theory), bobo doll experiment, modeling - observation & imitation, tv latent learning – edward tolman, sometimes learning occurs but is not immediately evidenced, cognitive map – just waiting to be asked and rewarded abstract learning – cognition not just reward or punish insight learning – wolfgang kohler (chimpanzees) – light bulb goes off – sticks and treat superstitious behaviors are learned quality of learning influenced by motivation, practice, schedule of reinforcement addressing behavior problems: behavior modification biofeedback – in touch w/ own body coping strategies – deal w/behav & situation self control cognition 8-10% people: noam chomsky herman ebbinghaus – retention curve & rehearsal wolfgang kohler elizabeth loftus – memory construction george a. miller –7 in stm (magic # 7) memory three-box/information-processing model sensory – short term/working – long term sensory – split-second holding tank – less than second, iconic memory (split-second photograph), echoic memory (3-4 seconds – sound) short term memory – visually, acoustically, semantically encoded to stm, temporary, fade w/in 10 to 30 seconds, 7 items limit, chunking, mnemonic devices (aconyms, method of loci, pegword), rehearsal long term memory – permanent storage, episodic memory (sequence of events), semantic memory (general knowledge), procedural memory (perform skills), explicit memories/declarative memories – think of 1st, implicit memories/nondeclarative – unintentional memories eidetic/photographic memory memories are deeply/elaborately processed vs shallowly/maintenance processed retrieval – recognition vs recall, primacy effect, recency effect, serial position effect, tipof-the tongue phenomenon (explanation: semantic network theory), flashbulb memories, mood-congruent memory (mood & memories), state-dependent memory(recall event encoded while in particular states of consciousness) constructed memory – false details – elizabeth loftus forgetting decay and relearning effect – less time 2nd time retroactive interference (learning new interferes w/recalling old info) vs proactive interference (older info learned previously interferes w/recall of info learned more recently) hippocampus & encoding memories anterograde amnesia – no encoding of new memories retrograde amnesia – memory loss of info before trauma both: clive wearing cerebellum – implicit/ procedural memory language phonemes (smallest unit – eng 44) morphemes (smallest unit of meaningful sound – a, but, pre, ly) words syntax – ordering – sentence structure language acquisition stages – babbling, holophrastic stage (1 word), telegraphic speech (simple commands – toddlers), overgeneralization/overregularization of grammar rules – use ed too often overextension of vocab – 1 word = more than should noam chomsky & language acquisition device – born with – nativist theory of language acquistion, critical periods for language learning (lennenberg)– lost kids, primates – opposite of skinner’s behavioral theory linguistic relativity hypothesis (benjamin whorf) –lang could be used to control our thinking – ex: labeling effect thinking & creativity thoughts – schema (assimilate & accommodate)/schemata, concepts and prototypes, images (mental pics) problem-solving – algorithms vs heuristics availability vs representative heuristics overconfidence – belief bias & belief perseverance impediment to problem-solving – mental set/rigidity, ex: functional fixedness, confirmation bias, framing creativity – convergent thinking (int) vs divergent thinking (multiple possible answers – creative) motivation & emotion 6-8% people: william james alfred kinsey abraham maslow stanley schachter – 2 factor theory hans selye – response to stress – general adaptation syndrome motivation theories (push & pull) drive reduction theory – body seeks homeostasis – need-drive-need reduction – satisfaction = homestasis (primary vs secondary drives) biological determinism – genetics influencing motivations; instincts & species cognitive dissonance/cognitive consistency– motivated to make attitude & action agree yerkes-dodson arousal theory – want to maintain optimum level ofarousal/excitement – social facilitation (easy task – lots of arousal) (opponent-process theory of motivation) back to baseline/neutral state – drugs incentive theory – pulled by a desire (extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation) maslow’s hierarchy of needs – meet basic needs 1st then move up to higher levels, selfactualization (unique potential as person);; – physiological – safety – belongingness and love – esteem needs – self actualization hunger motivation biological reasons: stomach empty = contracts, brain – hypothalamus (body chemistry – glucose & insulin) – lateral hypothalamus (stimulate = eat); ventromedial hypothalamus (satiety center; stimulate – stop eating set-point theory (optimum body weight), metabolic rate psych factors: externals vs internals, garcia effect (some foods bring back unpleasant memories), culture eating disorders: bulimia, anorexia nervosa (15% below normal), obesity sexual motivation: sexual response cycle: initial excitement, plateau phase, orgasm, resolution phase (refractory period) bio factors: brain – hypothalamus and gonads, hormones social factors: procreation, love & intimacy, peer encouragement sexual orientation – haven’t found environment factor yet, bio factor – brain structure size, genes, hormones in womb social motivation – achievement motivation, extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation – relates to management theories (work place) types of conflict – approach-approach conflict – 2 desireable outcomes conflict avoidance-avoidance conflict—must choose b/w 2 unattractive outcomes approach-avoidance conflict – one event has both attractive & unattractive features multiple approach-avoidance conflicts –2 or more w/attractive & unattractive features emotion theories james-lange – feel emotion b/c of bodily changes caused by stress cannon-bard – thalamus sends out signals to muscles & emotional centers simultaneously schachter’s two-factor theory – cognitive label, spillover effect facial expressions & duchenne smile (real smile) double-speak (body says one thing – but say another) stress measuring – social readjustment rating scale (srrs) & life-change units (lcus) general adaptation syndrome (gas) - selye – stages – alarm reaction then resistance then exhaustion developmental psych 7-9% people: mary ainsworth albert bandura diana baumrind erik erikson sigmund freud carol gilligan – challenged kohlberg & girls dev. differently not as individualistic harry harlow lawrence kohlberg konrad lorenz jean piaget lev vygotsky – ed psych, constructivist nature vs nurture, cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies, zygote, viability (legislation prenatal influences (genes, teratogens, fas) motor development – newborn reflexes (rooting, sucking, grasping, moro (fling arms and then retract), babinski (spread toes when foot stroked)), fat in milk & myelin sheath, motor dev – roll over 5.5 months, stand 8-9 months, walk by 15 mnths, gross motor vs fine motor skills, puberty – height and weight gains, menarche, spermarche adulthood parenting attachment, harlow’s monkey experiment (wire vs terry clothe), deprivation of attachment w/real mother = long term effects on behavior mary ainsworth – strange situation experiment secure attachment, avoidant attachment, anxious/ambivalent attachment parenting styles – authoritarian, permissive, authoritative stage theories (continuity vs discontinuity in dev) freud (psychosexual stages)– oral, anal, phallic (oedipus & electra complexes. penis envy & castration anxiety), latency (6 – puberty), genital (oral fixation, anal retentive, anal expulsive, psychic energy/libido –stuck in stages) erik erikson – neo-freudian (psychosocial stage theory – trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame/doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion, intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair cognitive development – smell, taste, touch first, then hearing and vision; habituation technique jean piaget’s cognitive-dev theory sensorimotor (object permanence), preoperational (2-7 – language, egocentric), concrete operation (8-12 concepts of conservation), formal operations (abstract reasoning) – criticism: stages kohlberg’s moral development stage theory 3 levels – preconventional (aviod punishment), conventional (society’s standards), postconventional (moral reasoning & self-defined ethical principles) – criticism by carol gilligan: biased against girls gender roles and social cognitive theory – gender-schema theory personality theories 5-7% people: alfred adler – inferiority complex albert bandura paul costa and robert mccrae – big 5 traits sigmund freud carl jung – collective unconscious & archetypes abraham maslow carl rogers psychoanalytic theory & freud (stages/discontinuity) unconscious -- id (eros/life instincts/sex, thanatos/death instincts/aggression)(pleasure principle), ego (reality principle), superego (ideal principle), defense mechanisms (repression, denial, displacement, projection, reaction formation, regression, rationalization, intellectualization, sublimation (channeling towards diff goal –healthy) ;; criticisms – evidence? not predictive, sexist psychodynamic theories –neo-freudians carl jung – personal unconscious and collective unconscious (passed down through species) alfred adler – ego psychologist; inferiority vs superiority, inferiority complex, birth order & shaping personality trait theories -hans eyesenck (introvert/extrovert & stable/unstable scales) raymond cattell – 16 personality factors big five (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, opennes, extraversion) factor analysis gordon allport – central traits vs secondary traits – cardinal dispostion/central vs secondary biological – heritability, temperaments hippocrates (4 humors/fluids – blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm) william sheldon’s somatotype theory (endomorphs/fat, mesomorphs/muscular, ectomorphs/thin) behaviorists – personality is determined by environment – skinner (childhood – change environment, change personality)- contingency of reinforcement social-cognitive theory – albert bandura – interaction bw traits, environment, and behavior (triadic reciprocality/ reciprocal determinism), sensce of self-efficacy – optimistic vs pessimistic julian rotter’s expectancy theory – internal locus of control vs external locus of control kelly’s personal-construct theory – how construct world – pairs of opposites humanistic – free will not determinism, focus on self-concept and self-esteem, selfactualize, maslow’s hierarchy or needs, rogers – unconditional positive regard assessment techniques for personality projective test – rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test, self-report inventories like minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (mmpi-2) validity and reliability barnum effect – sucker born every minute – how see our personality testing & individual differences 5-7% people: alfred binet – 1st iq test – french schools francis galton – inherited intellectual strengths – first to look at testing for intelligence (nature vs nurture) howard gardner – multiple intelligences charles spearman – general intelligence robert sternberg – triarchic theory of intelligence (3) louis terman – expanded binet’s test to stanford-binet iq test david wechsler – created wechsler adult intelligence scale (wais) & wechsler intelligence scale for children (wisc) – most widely used int. test today (overall scores, subtests, cognitive strengths and weaknesses) measurements of intelligence: abstract vs verbal measures; speed of processing intelligence influenced/defined by culture you are within (us = book smarts) theories of intelligence: charles spearman – general intelligence (g factor) howard gardner – 8 or 9 multiple intelligences (what are they?) robert sternberg – triarchic theory – 3 types of intelligence (analytical, creative, practical) test design standardization – compared to pretest group reliability – consistent (test-retest, split half, equivalent form) validity – accurate test -- such as content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity aptitude (future) vs achievement (already know) test sat minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (mmpi – 2) projective test (psychoanalysis) – rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test (tat) meaning of scores & normal curve – most near mean score 68% - between 85 & 115 95% -- between 70 (cognitively disabled) & 130 (gifted) mental retardation spectrum, autism spectrum (asperger syndrome) gifted spectrum iq = (mental age divided by chronological age) x 100 emotional quotient – eq (daniel goleman – emot intel) abnormal behavior 7-9% dsm iv tr– diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders – published by american psychiatric assoc. – primary reference for diagnosing disorders historical vs contemporary reasons for disorders – evil spirits to mentally ill to biopsychosocial approach major categories of disorders & symptoms anxiety – general anxiety disorder, phobias, panic attack, ocd, ptsd somatoform disorders – hypochondriasis, conversion, bodily dysmorphic, pain disorder, somatization disorder mood disorders – depression, dysthymia, bipolar (cyclothymia – less extreme), seasonal affective disorder schizophrenia – (paranoid, disorganized, catotonic, undifferentiated) hallucinations, disorganized thinking, delusions organic disturbance – (involves or affects organs or bodily functions) – examples: alcohol, drugs, dementia personality disorders (character disorders) –cluster a (odd or eccentric disorders) (paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, schizotypal personality disorder) --cluster b (dramatic, emotional or erratic disorders) (antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality disorder, narcissistic personality disorder) -- cluster c (anxious or fearful disorders) (avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, obsessivecompulsive personality disorder). dissociative disorders – depersonalization disorder, dissociative amnesia, dissociative fugue, dissociative identity disorder (multiple personalities) approaches to explaining disorders (strengths & weaknesses) medical model psychoanalytic humanistic cognitive biological sociocultural consequences of diagnostic labels: positive – can treat and help; negative – label impacts how treated, david rosenhan & rosenhan study (pseudopatients & schizophrenia – forced to take antipsychotics even though said felt fine in facility) mental disorders & legal system: patient confidentiality insanity defense – legally insane go to psychiatric hospital treatment 5-7% people: aaron beck – cognitive therapy (question irrational thinking) albert ellis – cognitive behavior therapy (rebt) sigmund freud – psychoanalytical therapy mary cover jones – little peter and counterconditioning fear/phobias carl rogers – humanistic / client-centered therapy bf skinner – behavioral therapy / behavior modification (oper. cond) joseph wolpe – exposure therapy & systematic desentization (countercond), reciprocal inhibition techniques for anxiety psychotherapeutic intervention – talking to therapist behavioral – change behaviors & countercondition, exposure therapy, behavior modification cognitive – change thinking (irrational to rational, questioning strategy, positive talk, stress inoculation training) humanistic – unconditional positive regard, client-centered, active listening, close gap between ideal self and real self, self actualization individual vs group therapy: pros and cons effectiveness of various treatments: phobias = behavior, depression = cognitive/cognitive behavioral choice and success of treatment also influenced by culture and ethnic context (premature termination) prevention strategies: build resilience & promote competence, exercise & diet, life stress biological therapy electroconvulsive therapy (ect) psychosurgery – lesioning (amygdala) chemotherapy (chemical therapy) drugs antipsychotic drugs & schizo – block dopamine receptors, thorazine (chlorpromazine) – side effects & tardive dyskensia antianxiety drugs – minor tranquilizers (barbiturates), xanax, valium, antidepressants – prozac, ssris lithium (carbonate) & bipolar social psych 8-10% people: solomon asch – conformity study (line test) leon festinger – cognitive dissonance theory – move attitude toward action when tension stanley milgram – obedience study (shock experiment) philip zimbardo – stanford prison experiment – power of situation, role playing/action changes attitudes, lucifer effect attribution theory (fritz heider) – explain behavior and motives – disposition or situation, fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias group behavior & dynamics – norms roles deindividuation group polarization groupthink conformity obedience to authority social facilitation social loafing bystander effect (kitty genovese story) diffusion of responsibility pluralistic ignorance (if others aren’t _______, then i won’t) changing attitudes – central route to persuasion (foot in the door phenomenon) cognitive dissonance treatment of groups prejudice stereotypes discrimination ethnocentrism reasons: social inequalities, ingroup vs outgroup (ingroup bias), emotional scapegoats, just world belief, hindsight bias, cognitive schemata, availability heuristics social and cultural categories – gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation (impact selfconcept and relations with others) group dynamics, behaviors, and self-fulfilling prophesy altruism – unselfish regard for welfare of others, equity, social exchange theory, reciprocity norm & social responsibility norm, peacemaking & subordinate goals & communication aggression – biological (testosterone, genetics, amygdala), aversive events and environment, frustration-aggression principle, learned aggression, social scripts, conflict (social traps & enemy perceptions & self-fulfilling prophesy) attraction – proximity/mere exposure effect, physical attractiveness, similarity of views