Download ap exam review: key terms, people, concepts

ap exam review: key terms, people, concepts
history & approaches 2-4%
people:
mary whiton calkins – 1st apa female pres.
charles darwin – nat. sel., evolution, origin of species
dorothea dix – mental hospitals revolution in us
sigmund freud – pa
g. stanley hall – 1st to describe adolescence “storm &
stress
`
william james – father of psych in us
ivan pavlov – discovered cc
jean piaget – cognitive research/schemas, stages
carl rogers – humanistic/ upr
bf skinner – oc/ behaviorist
margaret floy washburn –1st female phd/ 2nd female apa
john b watson – cc & emotions (little albert)/
parenting & advertising
wilhelm wundt -- introspection– father of scientific
psych – 1st psych lab – structuralism – also titchener
philosophy shaped early psych:
aristotle/plato
descartes
locke – tabula rasa
early years:
structuralism
functionalism
behaviorism – pavlov discovery
later:
gestalt
pa/psychodynamic
behaviorism – oc & skinner
humanism
contemporary:
evolutionary
biological
cognitive
psych domains:
biological
clinical
cognitive
counseling
developmental
educational
experimental
human factors
industrial-organizational
personality
psychometric
social
william james: principles of psychology – 1st text –
functionalism
gestalt psych – (max wertheimer) – examine person’s total experience & context –
perception more than just parts of whole
approaches/perspectives – you are who you are because …
behaviorism – 1920-1960s dominates (conditioning)
ivan pavlov & classical cond. (stimuli &
response)
john watson & little albert – adds to pavlov
operant conditioning (reinforcement & punishment) – bf skinner (operant
chamber/ skinner’s box)
humanistic – 60s & 70s – hippies
maslow (hierarchy of needs)
rogers (grow oak trees)
free will and indiv choices
humans are good
psychoanalysis/psychodynamics
sigmund freud & neofreudians
unconscious mind – (id, ego, superego) conflict and motivations
dream analysis
repression, anxiety, and defense mechanisms
biological/biopsychology/neuroscience
cognition and human reactions may be caused by genes inherited, hormones,
neurotransmitters, brain -- brain imaging
evolutionary
charles darwin – origin of species – natural selection – we’ve evolved
cognitive
thinking and feeling
self talk and slef attributions
change thoughts – change mood
look at how interpret, process, and remember
socio-cultural/multicultural
look at how thoughts and behaviors vary
across cultures
research methods – 8-10%
types of research: (purpose, strengths, weaknesses)
experiments
correlational studies
survey research
naturalistic observations
case studies
research design determines conclusions that can be made – experiments use for c&e – use
experimental controls to reduce alternative explanations (intervening variables)
experimental design:
rely upon operational definitions & measurement in
behavioral research
independent variable vs dependent variable
confounding variables – limit confidence & validity
control variables
random selection/sample (surveys & correlations) vs random assignment
descriptive statistics
interpret graphs
central tendency =mean, median, mode
standard deviation
inferential statistics
ethical issues – inform & constrain research
ethical guidelines: -- protect participants & promote sound ethical practice
apa
federal regulations
local/university institutional review boards
terms: hindsight bias, applied vs basic research,
experiments – (cause & effect) independent vs dependent variable, experimental vs
control group (hawthorne effect – affect performance just by selecting exper. group),
placebo, placebo effect, experimenter bias, subject bias, confounding variables, random
sampling, random assignment (controls for participant-relevant confounding
variables/response or participant bias like demand characteristics or social desirability
answers), single & double blinds, group matching, stratified sampling, sample,
generalization of results (use random & representative samples) , hypothesis (can’t be
proven), theory, operational definition, validity, reliability, replication,
participants/subjects, confederates, population, representative, random selection (pick
from hat), situation-relevant confounding variables, laboratory vs field experiments
correlational studies – does not imply causation, positive or negative correlation, ex post
facto study, if no relationship b/w 2 variables, then no correlation, strong or weak
(correlation coefficient -- -1 to +1 / 0 means no cor.) correlation graphed w/ scatter plot
& line of best fit or regression line
surveys – low response rate, not always truthful
naturalistic observation – in natural habitat, vs field experiment
case study – small group but more detail
descriptive statistics –(simply describe set of data) stats include frequency distribution
like frequency polygons (line graphs) or histograms (bar graphs), y-axis – vertical, x-axis
– horizontal, measures of central tendency (mean, median, mode), extreme scores or
outliers skew distributions, positively skewed – contains more low scores than high ones,
negatively skewed – contains more high scores than low, range, variance, standard
deviation (square root of the variance) – the higher the more spread out the distribution is
(from the mean), z scores (distance from mean in standard deviation units) – negative z
score vs positive z scores, normal curve – bell shape (68% of scores fall withi 1 standard
dev. of mean, 95% w/in 2 s.d., 99% w/in 3 s.d.), percentiles – distance of score from 0 –
90 percentile above 90% of people
inferential statistics – purpose: to determine whether findings can be applied to the larger
population from which the sample was selected, sampling error (sample differs from
population – can’t generalize), use t tests, anovas, manovas to test (look at magnitude in
difference b/w exper & control group and size of sample) – all yield p value (smaller
values = more significant resluts – p value of .05 means that a 5% chance exist that the
results occurred by chance – never get p value of zero)
apa ethical guidelines – academic research must be 1st propose to ethics/ institutional
review board (irb),
animals – a) clear scientific purpose, b) care for and house in humane way, c) acquire
subjects legally (usually from accredited company), d) least amount of suffering feasible
humans – a) voluntary participation (no coercion), b) informed consent, c)
anonymity/confidentiality, d) no significant menatl or physical risk (esp. long term), e)
debriefing
longitudinal studies – developmental psych
cross-sectional studies – across culture & society
biological bases of behavior 8 – 10 %
people:
paul broca – broca’s area
charles darwin – evolution
michael gazzaniga – split brain research
roger sperry – split-brain research & function
carl wernicke – wernicke’s area
research strategies:
case studies
split brain research
imaging – cat(computerized axial tomography = brain x-ray), pet (positron
emission tomography – glucose = functioning areas), mri (magnetic resonance
imaging = only structure), f-mri (function = blood flow), eeg (brain waves =
consciousness & sleep)
surgical – lesioning, psychosurgery, accidents (phineas gage)
neuroanatomy (neuron parts)
dendrites, soma (cell body) axons, terminal branches/buttons, myelin sheath,
synapse (synaptic gap/cleft)
types of neurons – sensory/afferent, interneurons,
motor/efferent
working of neuron – electrochemical process, action
potential, resting potential, sodium potassium pump, all-or-none law, refractory
period
neurotransmitters – acetylcholine (motor
movement function – lack = alzheimer’s), dopamine (motor movement &
alertness -lack = parkinson, too much = schizophrenia), endorphins (pain control
– addictions), serotonin ( mood control – lack = clinical depression), epinephrine
&norepinephrine)
nervous system – peripheral vs central (spinal
cord & brain = reflexes), autonomic (autopilot – fight or flight) vs somatic
(voluntary muscle movement), sympathetic (alert/aroused) vs parasympathetic
(calming)
brain parts:
hindbrain (top part of spinal cord – life support)
medulla (blood pressure, hr, breathing)
pons (connects hind w/mid & forebrain – facial
expressions)
reticular formation/reticular activating system – (arousal, focus attention, w/o
deep coma)
midbrain – simple movements, sensory info w/
muscle movement
thalamus – processing center
hypothalamus – temp, libido, hunger,
thirst, biological rhythms, endocrine system
amygdala – emotion & anger
hippocampus – memory processing
limbic system (thalamus, hypothal, amyg, hippo -emotion & memory)
forebain – (thought & reasoning)
cerebral cortex – gray, wrinkled (fissures), layers
of neurons
hemispheres (cross wired= contralateral
control),
brain lateralization
hemispheric specialization,
split-brain patients – corpus callosum (cut for epilepsy) – can’t orally report info
only presented to right
left – logical & sequential tasks,spoken lang.
right – spatial & creative tasks
cerebral cortex – 8 diff lobes (4 in each hemisphere = f, p, t, o)
association areas – judgement, humor
frontal lobes (behind eyes)—anterior lobe
(prefrontal cortex) deals w/planning, maintaining emotional contral, pursuing
goals, phineas gage), broca’s area – muscle movement to produce speech, motor
cortex – signals to muscles – top part controls feet & toes and upward
parietal lobes – sensory cortex/somato-senory
cortex = receives incoming touch sensations, top gets messages from bottom of
body and so on
occipital lobes – interpret meessages from eyes in our visual cortex, images from right
half of each retina processed in visual cortex in right occip. lobe
temporal lobes – auditory cortex = not lateralized = use both hemispheres, wernicke’s
area = interpret, written & spoken speech/meaning
brain plasticity – brain adapts to other functions, dendrites (esp. children) make new
connections in diff part to take over for damaged part of brain
endocrine system – hypothalamus controls,
hormomes (slower but longer), pituitary gland (master & growth, adrenal gland =
epinephrine & norepinephrine (hr & blood pres)
gonads (ovaries & testes) sex hormones = estrogen & testoterone
genetics – punnet square (rr, rr, rr, rr) – mendel & peas, nature, 23 pairs of chromosomes
(46), dna = genetic material making up choromsomes (control some traits), segments =
genes (dominant vs recessive)
twins – identical (monozygotic), thomas bouchard – separated identical twins study –
genes matter, criticism = have same effective psychological environment b/c look same
so treated similar in life
chromosomes – xy (boy), xx (girl), father gives, abnormalities = turner’s syndrome (only
single x where 23rd pair should be – shortness & diff phys sexual development),
klinefelter’s syndrome (xxy= minimal sexual dev. & introversion, down syndrome =
extra choromsome on 21st pair = mental retardation & physical appearance, pku –
enzyme abnormality
heredity,environment,and evolution work together
sensation & perception 6-8%
people:
gustav fechner – fechner’s law
david hubel & torsten wiesel – vision nobel
prize, feature detectors
ernst weber – weber’s law
torsten wiesel – sensory deprivation (seeing) long term effects
sensory transduction (stimuli signals transformed into neural impulses),
sensory adaptation (decreased responsiveness), sensory habituation (how fouced we are
about them), cocktail-party phenomenon (involuntarily pay attention), sensation
(activation of senses like eyes & ears), perception (understanding sensations)
vision (dominant sense) –
light intensity = how bright appears
light wavelength = hue we see (longer than we can see are infrared, microwaves,
radio waves; shorter are ultraviolet & x-rays) – longest to shortest – roy g. biv;
objects color appearance b/c reflect that wavelength
eye – cornea (protects & helps focus the light), pupil (muscles are iris – dilate to
let more light in), accomodation (process of focusing light), lens (curved &
flexible to focus), image is flipped upside down and inverted & then projected on
retina (screen on back of eye)
transduction – (translate incoming stimuli into neural signals – other senses as
well) happens when light activates neurons in retina including cones (activated by
color, more in center of retina) & rods (black & white, more 20 to 1, peripheral,
night vision), fovea centralis (lots of cones, focus spot), next bipolar cells
activated, then ganglion
cells fire, axons of ganglion cells = optic nerve – send impulses to thalamus part
called the lateral geniculate nucleus (lgn) – then sent to visual cortex in occipital
lobe, blind spot (optic nerve leaves retina – no rods or cones) optic nerve – 2 parts
to diff hemispheres, optic chiasm (where nerves cross each other)
inside brain – impulses activate feature detectors (groups of neurons in visual
cortex that respond to diff types of visual images) ex: vertical lines/curves/motion,
visual impairment
theories of color
trichromatic -(cones detect blue, red, green),
opponent-process theory – red/green, blue/yellow, black/white sensory receptors
in
pairs – if one is stimulated, its pair is inhibited from firing – explains dichromatic
color blindness, monochromatic color blindness (only gray), afterimages
hearing – sound waves & transduction
amplitude – height of wave (loudness – decibels)
frequency – length of wave (pitch –
megahertz), high-pitched = high freq = waves densely packed together
ear parts – pinna (outer ear), ear canal/auditory canal, eardrum/tympanic membrane,
ossicles bones (hammer/malleus, anvil/incus, stirrup/stapes), oval window, cochlea (snail
shell w/fluid), basilar membrane (floor of cochlea), lined w/hair cells (connected to organ
of corti – neurons activated by hair cells movement), fluid moves = hair cells move =
transduction, impulses to brain via auditory nerve
pitch theories
place theory – hair cells respond to diff freq
of sound based on where located in cochlea (upper tones)
frequency theory – lower tones – rate at
which cells fire – hair cells fire at diff rate (freq) in the cochlea
deafness
conduction deafness (problem conduction sound to cochlea)
nerve/sensorineural deafness – hair cells damaged (by loud noise) – don’t
regenerate
touch – some nerve endings respond to pressure, others temp, nerve ending concentrated
in certain areas, if touch or temp receptors stimulated sharply then pain receptors will
also fire
gate-control theory – pain messages high priority so nerve “gates” swing wide open and
shut for low priority messages – allow you to focus on message, endorphins (brain pain
killers) & opiates (morphine) also swing gate shut
chemical senses (taste & smell)
taste/gustation – chemicals in food absorbed by taste buds on tongue (located on papillae
– bumps on tongue), types – sweet, salty, sour, bitter, & maybe umami, some taste buds
respond more intensely to specific taste and more weakly to others, more densly packed
taste buds = more chemicals absorbed = more intense tasting food, food flavor =
combination of taste & smell
smell/olfaction – chemicals emitted by substances
nose, nostril, mucous membrane, absorbed by olfactory receptor cells, olfactory
bulb straight to limbic system of brain (amygdala and hippocampus – emotion and
memory = powerful trigger for memories), anosmia (burnt out receptors), pheromones
(natural chemicals), context driven
body position senses
vestibular senses – how body is oriented in space by 3 semicircular canals filled
w/fluid in inner ear (provide feedback on body orientation), if fluid moves so much brain
receives confusing signals = dizziness & nausea
kinesthetic sense – feedback on position and orientation of specific body parts
(arm, leg), receptors in muscles and joints send info to brain
perception –
psychophysics (study interaction b/w sensations receive and experience of them)
absolute threshold – smallest amount of stimulus we can detect
subliminal stimuli (below absolute threshold) – most messaging not scientifically
supported
difference threshold/just noticeable difference (smallestamount of change needed
in a stimulus before we detect a change)
weber’s law (computes jnd) – change needed is proportional to the original
intensity of stimulus)
weber’s constants differ for senses – hearing 5%, vision 8%
perceutual theories
signal detection theory – takes into account how
motivated we are to detect certain stimuli & what expect to perceive (factors caled
response criteria/receiver operating characteristics), false positive – think perceive
stimulus that is not there
false negative – no perceiving stimulus that is present
top-down processing – perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense (use background
knowledge to help)
schemata (mental representations of how expect the world to be) create perceptual set
(predispostion of perceiving something in certain way) – backmasking (70s b/c expected
bad messages); makes you vulnerable to illusions
bottom-up processing/feature analysis – use only features of the object itself to build a
complete perception – put characteristics together to get perception of object – automatic
process – feature detectors in visual cortex – longer but more accurate
culture & experience influence perception – perceptual set, context effects
role of attention
rules of visual perception & optical illusions
figure-ground relationship – figure vs
background
gestalt rules – perceive images as groups not isolated elements
proximity – close = group
similarity – similar = group
continuity – continuous form = group
closure – fill in gaps = group
constancy
size (closer = bigger but know same object)
shape (diff angles/diff view but know same
object)
brightness – see as being constant color even as light reflects off object
diff
perceived motion
stroboscopic effect – flip books – series of pics
phi phenomenon – lights turning on/off see motion
autokinetic effect – spot on light on wall in dark room – stare at – appears
to move
depth cues & depth perception
eleanor gibson & visual cliff experiment
monocular cues – linear perspective, relative size cue, interposition cue
(blocks other object = must be closer), texture gradient, shadowing
binocular cues – binocular
disparity/retinal disparity (closer object more disparity b/w images from
each eye), convergence (closer to face – eyes move towards each other to
keep focus)
muller-lyer illusion – lines w/arrows
esp (6th sense) – no scientific proof – telepathy, clairvoyance, precognition, psychokinesis
states of consciousness 2-4%
people:
william james –
sigmumd freud
ernest hilgard
dualism vs monism (mind & body)
consciousness – awareness about
ourselves and environment – diff states not on/off , states (daydreaming,
dreaming, awake, hypnosis, hallucination, meditation
freud & levels – conscious, pre, un
evidence that there are levels -- mere exposure effect, priming, blind sight
levels--conscious level, nonconscious level (heart, digestion, breathing), preconscious
level (not thinking about but could be/preconscious memory), subconscious level
(priming & mere exposure effect), unconscious level (psychoanalytics believe in this)
sleep – one of the states of consciousness (not unconscious), circadian rhythm (24hr
metobolic &thought pattern) & sleep cycle (use eeg to examine)
sleep stages
sleep onset – falling asleep
drowsy but awake – alpha waves (mild hallucinations)
stage 1 – fall asleep
1 & 2 – theta waves (high freq, low amplitude)
stage 2 – sleep spindles (short burst of rapid brain waves)
3 & 4 – delta sleep (slow wave) – deeper & less aware of environment, important
for replenishing body’s chemicals, growth, & immune
go backwards thru 3 , 2, 1
rem –intense brain activity like when awake, paradoxcal sleep, dreams (but any
stage), memory, rem rebound
90 minute stages 4 to 7 times /night, close to morning less time in 3 & 4, babies
more rem
sleep disorders
insomnia (10%), caffeine problem
narcolepsy (suddenly fall into rem sleep)
sleep apnea – stop breathing wake up slightly and don’t know it, overweight men
night terrors – children, stage 4 sleep
sleep walking – somnambulism – kids
dreams
freud – manifest vs latent content
activation-synthesis theory – brain
intepreting what is happening physiologically during rem
information-processing theory – dealing w/daily
stress and info during rem
hypnosis
posthypnotic amnesia—forget hypnotized
events
posthypnotic suggestions
hypnotic suggestibility -role theory – act out role
state theory – altered state of consciousness (pain control)
dissociation theory – ernest hilgard – voluntarily divided consciousness & hidden
observer level monitors what is happening – hand in ice (no pain) but lift finger if
any part of them felt pain
psychotherapy
drugs – psycchoactive drugs – chemicals change chemistry of brain
agonists – mimic neurotransmitters
antagonists – block neurotransmitters
reuptake inhibitors
drug dependence
tolerance – drug takes place of natural neurotransmitter
addiction
withdrawal & symptoms
stimulants (caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines,
nicotine) – speed up processes include. ans (hr, breathing), leads to euphoria
(concaine), side effects – disturbed sleep, reduce appetite, anxiety, heart
problems)
depressants – slow down (alcohol, barbiturates,
anxiolytics/tranquilizers/antianxiety drugs) valium, alcohol – inhibits judgement,
cerebellum (motor coordination)
hallucinogens (psychodelics) – sensory
hallucinations, identity loss, vivid fantasies (lsd, peyote, mushrooms, marijuana),
remain in body for weeks – add a little – more profound effect – reverse tolerance
opiates – morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine,
opium (poppy plant), agonists for endorphins – painkillers & mood elevators,
drowsiness & euphoria, very addictive b/c rapid brain chemistry change
learning 7-9%
people:
albert bandura
john garcia – bio predisposed for certain
learning
ivan pavlov
robert rescorla – contingency model of
cc/cognition & expectancy
bf skinner
edward thorndike
edward tolman
john b watson
cc versus oc vs observational learing -- diff
long lasting change in behavior resulting from experience
classical condidtioning – pavlov – learn to assoc. stimuli w/responses
-unconditioned stimulus (us/ucs), unconditioned response (ur/ucr), neutral stimulus &
pairing, conditioned stimulus (cs), conditioned response (cr)
acquistion learning
delayed conditioning (ns before/during us) most effective
trace conditioning (ns short break us)
backward conditioning ( us then ns – ineffective)
simultaneous conditioning (ns & us – same time)
extinction – cs no longer elicits cr
spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, john watson/rosalie rayner & little
albert (cc for humans as well)
aversive conditioning – nail biting
learned helplessness – martin seligman (dog and
shock floor)
second-order/higher order conditioning – using cs as a us to condition a response to new
stimulus (shaping & chaining)
biology & cc – learned taste aversions – strong & unusual tastes
garcia & koelling’s experiment illustrating biological preparedness in classical
conditioning
operant conditioning – assoc. consequences w/behavior, edward thorndike – cat & puzzle
box, law of effect (if consequences of behavior are pleasant, the stimulus-response (s-r)
connection will be strengthened and likelihood of the behavior will increase & the
opposite for unpleasant – thorndike – instrumental learning
bf skinner – coined oc, skinner box & animal learning, positive vs negative reinforcement
(escape learning vs avoidance learning), positive punishment vs negative
punishment/omission training
shaping for desired behavior, chaining for linking separate behaviors to complex activity
extinction, acquistion, spont recovery, generalization, discrimination
primary reinforcers vs secondary reinforcers (including generalized reinforcers like
money – token economy)
premack principle – reinforcing propertie s of something depends on the situation and
individual
reinforcement schedules
continuous reinf vs partial reinf. schedule
partial – more resistant to extinction
ratio schedules= number of responses made
interval schedules = passage of time
fixed schedules = constant
variable schedules = changing
fixed ratio (fr) – reinf. after set # of responses
variable-ratio (vr) – reinf. after varying # of times – never know when – slot machines
fixed interval (fi)– set amount of time – paycheck
variable interval (vi) – varying amount of time
 variable usually use an average number for lab
biology & oc – instinctive drift – pig w/coing
observational learning –
albert bandura (social learning theory), bobo doll experiment, modeling - observation & imitation, tv
latent learning – edward tolman, sometimes
learning occurs but is not immediately evidenced, cognitive map – just waiting to
be asked and rewarded
abstract learning – cognition not just reward or
punish
insight learning – wolfgang kohler (chimpanzees) –
light bulb goes off – sticks and treat
superstitious behaviors are learned
quality of learning influenced by motivation, practice, schedule of reinforcement
addressing behavior problems:
behavior modification
biofeedback – in touch w/ own body
coping strategies – deal w/behav & situation
self control
cognition 8-10%
people:
noam chomsky
herman ebbinghaus – retention curve & rehearsal
wolfgang kohler
elizabeth loftus – memory construction
george a. miller –7 in stm (magic # 7)
memory
three-box/information-processing model
sensory – short term/working – long term
sensory – split-second holding tank – less than second, iconic memory (split-second
photograph), echoic memory (3-4 seconds – sound)
short term memory – visually, acoustically, semantically encoded to stm, temporary, fade
w/in 10 to 30 seconds, 7 items limit, chunking, mnemonic devices (aconyms, method of
loci, pegword), rehearsal
long term memory – permanent storage, episodic memory (sequence of events), semantic
memory (general knowledge), procedural memory (perform skills), explicit
memories/declarative memories – think of 1st, implicit memories/nondeclarative –
unintentional memories
eidetic/photographic memory
memories are deeply/elaborately processed vs shallowly/maintenance processed
retrieval – recognition vs recall, primacy effect, recency effect, serial position effect, tipof-the tongue phenomenon (explanation: semantic network theory), flashbulb memories,
mood-congruent memory (mood & memories), state-dependent memory(recall event
encoded while in particular states of consciousness)
constructed memory – false details – elizabeth loftus
forgetting
decay and relearning effect – less time 2nd time
retroactive interference (learning new interferes w/recalling old info) vs proactive
interference (older info learned previously interferes w/recall of info learned more
recently)
hippocampus & encoding memories
anterograde amnesia – no encoding of new memories
retrograde amnesia – memory loss of info before trauma
both: clive wearing
cerebellum – implicit/ procedural memory
language
phonemes (smallest unit – eng 44)
morphemes (smallest unit of meaningful sound – a, but, pre, ly)
words
syntax – ordering – sentence structure
language acquisition stages – babbling, holophrastic stage (1 word), telegraphic speech
(simple commands – toddlers), overgeneralization/overregularization of grammar rules –
use ed too often
overextension of vocab – 1 word = more than should
noam chomsky & language acquisition device – born with – nativist theory of language
acquistion, critical periods for language learning (lennenberg)– lost kids, primates
– opposite of skinner’s behavioral theory
linguistic relativity hypothesis (benjamin whorf) –lang could be used to control our
thinking – ex: labeling effect
thinking & creativity
thoughts – schema (assimilate & accommodate)/schemata, concepts and prototypes,
images (mental pics)
problem-solving – algorithms vs heuristics
availability vs representative heuristics
overconfidence – belief bias & belief perseverance
impediment to problem-solving – mental set/rigidity, ex: functional fixedness,
confirmation bias, framing
creativity – convergent thinking (int) vs divergent thinking (multiple possible answers –
creative)
motivation & emotion 6-8%
people:
william james
alfred kinsey
abraham maslow
stanley schachter – 2 factor theory
hans selye – response to stress – general
adaptation syndrome
motivation theories (push & pull)
drive reduction theory – body seeks homeostasis –
need-drive-need reduction – satisfaction = homestasis (primary vs secondary
drives)
biological determinism – genetics influencing
motivations; instincts & species
cognitive dissonance/cognitive consistency–
motivated to make attitude & action agree
yerkes-dodson arousal theory – want to maintain optimum level ofarousal/excitement –
social facilitation (easy task – lots of arousal)
(opponent-process theory of motivation) back to baseline/neutral state – drugs
incentive theory – pulled by a desire (extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation)
maslow’s hierarchy of needs – meet basic needs 1st then move up to higher levels, selfactualization (unique potential as person);; – physiological – safety – belongingness and
love – esteem needs – self actualization
hunger motivation
biological reasons: stomach empty = contracts, brain – hypothalamus (body chemistry –
glucose & insulin) – lateral hypothalamus (stimulate = eat); ventromedial hypothalamus
(satiety center; stimulate – stop eating
set-point theory (optimum body weight), metabolic rate
psych factors:
externals vs internals, garcia effect (some foods bring back unpleasant memories),
culture
eating disorders:
bulimia, anorexia nervosa (15% below normal), obesity
sexual motivation:
sexual response cycle: initial excitement, plateau phase, orgasm, resolution phase
(refractory period)
bio factors: brain – hypothalamus and gonads, hormones
social factors: procreation, love & intimacy, peer encouragement
sexual orientation – haven’t found environment factor yet, bio factor – brain structure
size, genes, hormones in womb
social motivation – achievement motivation, extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation – relates to
management theories (work place)
types of conflict –
approach-approach conflict – 2 desireable
outcomes conflict
avoidance-avoidance conflict—must choose b/w 2 unattractive outcomes
approach-avoidance conflict – one event has both attractive & unattractive
features
multiple approach-avoidance conflicts –2 or more w/attractive & unattractive
features
emotion theories
james-lange – feel emotion b/c of bodily
changes caused by stress
cannon-bard – thalamus sends out signals to muscles & emotional centers simultaneously
schachter’s two-factor theory – cognitive label, spillover effect
facial expressions & duchenne smile (real smile)
double-speak (body says one thing – but say another)
stress
measuring – social readjustment rating scale (srrs) & life-change units (lcus)
general adaptation syndrome (gas) - selye – stages – alarm reaction then resistance then
exhaustion
developmental psych 7-9%
people:
mary ainsworth
albert bandura
diana baumrind
erik erikson
sigmund freud
carol gilligan – challenged kohlberg & girls
dev. differently not as individualistic
harry harlow
lawrence kohlberg
konrad lorenz
jean piaget
lev vygotsky – ed psych, constructivist
nature vs nurture, cross-sectional vs longitudinal studies, zygote, viability
(legislation
prenatal influences (genes, teratogens, fas)
motor development – newborn reflexes (rooting, sucking, grasping, moro (fling arms and
then retract), babinski (spread toes when foot stroked)), fat in milk & myelin sheath,
motor dev – roll over 5.5 months, stand 8-9 months, walk by 15 mnths, gross motor vs
fine motor skills,
puberty – height and weight gains, menarche, spermarche
adulthood
parenting
attachment, harlow’s monkey experiment (wire vs terry clothe), deprivation of
attachment w/real mother = long term effects on behavior
mary ainsworth – strange situation experiment
secure attachment, avoidant attachment, anxious/ambivalent attachment
parenting styles – authoritarian, permissive, authoritative
stage theories (continuity vs discontinuity in dev)
freud (psychosexual stages)– oral,
anal, phallic (oedipus & electra complexes. penis envy & castration anxiety),
latency (6 – puberty), genital (oral fixation, anal retentive, anal expulsive, psychic
energy/libido –stuck in stages)
erik erikson – neo-freudian (psychosocial stage theory – trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs
shame/doubt, initiative vs guilt, industry vs inferiority, identity vs role confusion,
intimacy vs isolation, generativity vs stagnation, integrity vs despair
cognitive development – smell, taste, touch first, then hearing and vision; habituation
technique
jean piaget’s cognitive-dev theory
sensorimotor (object permanence), preoperational (2-7 – language, egocentric), concrete
operation (8-12 concepts of conservation), formal operations (abstract reasoning) –
criticism: stages
kohlberg’s moral development stage theory
3 levels – preconventional (aviod punishment), conventional (society’s standards),
postconventional (moral reasoning & self-defined ethical principles) – criticism by carol
gilligan: biased against girls
gender roles and social cognitive theory –
gender-schema theory
personality theories 5-7%
people:
alfred adler – inferiority complex
albert bandura
paul costa and robert mccrae – big 5 traits
sigmund freud
carl jung – collective unconscious &
archetypes
abraham maslow
carl rogers
psychoanalytic theory & freud (stages/discontinuity) unconscious -- id (eros/life
instincts/sex, thanatos/death instincts/aggression)(pleasure principle), ego (reality
principle), superego (ideal principle),
defense mechanisms (repression, denial, displacement, projection, reaction formation,
regression, rationalization, intellectualization, sublimation (channeling towards diff goal
–healthy) ;; criticisms – evidence? not predictive, sexist
psychodynamic theories –neo-freudians
carl jung – personal unconscious and collective unconscious (passed down through
species)
alfred adler – ego psychologist; inferiority vs superiority, inferiority complex, birth order
& shaping personality
trait theories
-hans eyesenck (introvert/extrovert & stable/unstable scales)
raymond cattell – 16 personality factors
big five (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, opennes, extraversion)
factor analysis
gordon allport – central traits vs secondary traits – cardinal dispostion/central vs
secondary
biological – heritability, temperaments
hippocrates (4 humors/fluids – blood, yellow
bile, black bile, and phlegm)
william sheldon’s somatotype theory
(endomorphs/fat, mesomorphs/muscular, ectomorphs/thin)
behaviorists – personality is determined by environment – skinner (childhood – change
environment, change personality)- contingency of reinforcement
social-cognitive theory – albert bandura – interaction bw traits, environment, and
behavior (triadic reciprocality/ reciprocal determinism), sensce of self-efficacy –
optimistic vs pessimistic
julian rotter’s expectancy theory – internal locus of control vs external locus of control
kelly’s personal-construct theory – how construct world – pairs of opposites
humanistic – free will not determinism, focus on self-concept and self-esteem, selfactualize, maslow’s hierarchy or needs, rogers – unconditional positive regard
assessment techniques for personality
projective test – rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test,
self-report inventories like minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (mmpi-2)
validity and reliability
barnum effect – sucker born every minute – how see our personality
testing & individual differences 5-7%
people:
alfred binet – 1st iq test – french schools
francis galton – inherited intellectual strengths – first to look at testing for
intelligence (nature vs nurture)
howard gardner – multiple intelligences
charles spearman – general intelligence
robert sternberg – triarchic theory of intelligence (3)
louis terman – expanded binet’s test to stanford-binet iq test
david wechsler – created wechsler adult intelligence scale (wais) & wechsler
intelligence scale for children (wisc) – most widely used int. test today (overall
scores, subtests, cognitive strengths and weaknesses)
measurements of intelligence: abstract vs verbal measures; speed of processing
intelligence influenced/defined by culture you are within (us = book smarts)
theories of intelligence:
charles spearman – general intelligence (g factor)
howard gardner – 8 or 9 multiple intelligences (what are they?)
robert sternberg – triarchic theory – 3 types of intelligence (analytical, creative,
practical)
test design
standardization – compared to pretest group
reliability – consistent (test-retest, split half, equivalent form)
validity – accurate test -- such as content validity, criterion validity, and construct
validity
aptitude (future) vs achievement (already know) test
sat
minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (mmpi – 2)
projective test (psychoanalysis) – rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception
test (tat)
meaning of scores & normal curve – most near mean score
68% - between 85 & 115
95% -- between 70 (cognitively disabled) & 130 (gifted)
mental retardation spectrum, autism spectrum (asperger syndrome)
gifted spectrum
iq = (mental age divided by chronological age) x 100
emotional quotient – eq (daniel goleman – emot intel)
abnormal behavior 7-9%
dsm iv tr– diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders – published by american
psychiatric assoc. – primary reference for diagnosing disorders
historical vs contemporary reasons for disorders – evil spirits to mentally ill to
biopsychosocial approach
major categories of disorders & symptoms
anxiety – general anxiety disorder, phobias, panic attack, ocd, ptsd
somatoform disorders – hypochondriasis, conversion, bodily dysmorphic, pain disorder,
somatization disorder
mood disorders – depression, dysthymia, bipolar (cyclothymia – less extreme), seasonal
affective disorder
schizophrenia – (paranoid, disorganized, catotonic, undifferentiated) hallucinations,
disorganized thinking, delusions
organic disturbance – (involves or affects organs or bodily functions) – examples:
alcohol, drugs, dementia
personality disorders (character disorders) –cluster a (odd or eccentric disorders)
(paranoid personality disorder, schizoid personality disorder, schizotypal
personality disorder) --cluster b (dramatic, emotional or erratic disorders) (antisocial
personality disorder, borderline personality disorder, histrionic personality
disorder, narcissistic personality disorder) -- cluster c (anxious or fearful disorders)
(avoidant personality disorder, dependent personality disorder, obsessivecompulsive personality disorder).
dissociative disorders – depersonalization disorder, dissociative amnesia, dissociative
fugue, dissociative identity disorder (multiple personalities)
approaches to explaining disorders (strengths & weaknesses)
medical model
psychoanalytic
humanistic
cognitive
biological
sociocultural
consequences of diagnostic labels: positive – can treat and help; negative – label impacts
how treated, david rosenhan & rosenhan study (pseudopatients & schizophrenia – forced
to take antipsychotics even though said felt fine in facility)
mental disorders & legal system:
patient confidentiality
insanity defense – legally insane go to psychiatric hospital
treatment 5-7%
people:
aaron beck – cognitive therapy (question irrational thinking)
albert ellis – cognitive behavior therapy (rebt)
sigmund freud – psychoanalytical therapy
mary cover jones – little peter and counterconditioning fear/phobias
carl rogers – humanistic / client-centered therapy
bf skinner – behavioral therapy / behavior modification (oper. cond)
joseph wolpe – exposure therapy & systematic desentization (countercond),
reciprocal inhibition techniques for anxiety
psychotherapeutic intervention – talking to therapist
behavioral – change behaviors & countercondition, exposure therapy, behavior
modification
cognitive – change thinking (irrational to rational, questioning strategy, positive
talk, stress inoculation training)
humanistic – unconditional positive regard, client-centered, active listening, close
gap between ideal self and real self, self actualization
individual vs group therapy: pros and cons
effectiveness of various treatments: phobias = behavior, depression = cognitive/cognitive
behavioral
choice and success of treatment also influenced by culture and ethnic context (premature
termination)
prevention strategies: build resilience & promote competence, exercise & diet, life stress
biological therapy
electroconvulsive therapy (ect)
psychosurgery – lesioning (amygdala)
chemotherapy (chemical therapy)
drugs
antipsychotic drugs & schizo – block dopamine receptors, thorazine
(chlorpromazine) – side effects & tardive dyskensia
antianxiety drugs – minor tranquilizers (barbiturates), xanax, valium,
antidepressants – prozac, ssris
lithium (carbonate) & bipolar
social psych 8-10%
people:
solomon asch – conformity study (line test)
leon festinger – cognitive dissonance theory – move attitude toward action when
tension
stanley milgram – obedience study (shock experiment)
philip zimbardo – stanford prison experiment – power of situation, role
playing/action changes attitudes, lucifer effect
attribution theory (fritz heider) – explain behavior and motives – disposition or situation,
fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias
group behavior & dynamics –
norms
roles
deindividuation
group polarization
groupthink
conformity
obedience to authority
social facilitation
social loafing
bystander effect (kitty genovese story) diffusion of responsibility
pluralistic ignorance (if others aren’t _______, then i won’t)
changing attitudes –
central route to persuasion (foot in the door phenomenon)
cognitive dissonance
treatment of groups
prejudice
stereotypes
discrimination
ethnocentrism
reasons: social inequalities, ingroup vs outgroup (ingroup bias), emotional
scapegoats, just world belief, hindsight bias, cognitive schemata, availability
heuristics
social and cultural categories – gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation (impact selfconcept and relations with others)
group dynamics, behaviors, and self-fulfilling prophesy
altruism – unselfish regard for welfare of others, equity, social exchange theory,
reciprocity norm & social responsibility norm, peacemaking & subordinate goals &
communication
aggression – biological (testosterone, genetics, amygdala), aversive events and
environment, frustration-aggression principle, learned aggression, social scripts, conflict
(social traps & enemy perceptions & self-fulfilling prophesy)
attraction – proximity/mere exposure effect, physical attractiveness, similarity of views