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1 Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience 2 Types of Learning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive and social learning Classical Conditioning What is learning? How do we learn to form associations between stimuli and responses? Classical Conditioning Discovered (accidentally) by Ivan Pavlov • Components – Unconditioned stimulus (US) – Unconditioned response (UR) – Conditioned stimulus (CS) – Conditioned response (CR) Pavlov’s Experiment: Phase 1 Food (US): salivation (UR) Reflexive response Tone (CS): nothing (CR) Pavlov’s Experiment: Phase 2 CS is repeatedly paired with the US A tone is sounded before the food is presented Pavlov’s Experiment: Phase 3 Eventually, the CS elicits a new CR Hearing the tone by itself causes salivation Classical Conditioning NEUTRAL STIMULUS UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS will elicit NO REACTION will elicit a REFLEX ACTION will elicit a REFLEX ACTION UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS NEUTRAL STIMULUS CONDITIONED STIMULUS CONDITIONED STIMULUS will elicit a CONDITIONED RESPONSE Factors Affecting Classical Conditioning Relationship in time: contiguity NS/CS and US must occur close together in time NS/CS should precede the US Consistency and reliability: contingency NC/CS should reliably predict the onset of the US Let’s Review 11 Classical Conditioning of Physiological Responses: The Special Case of Taste Aversion Taste aversion – sight, smell, idea of food make person sick; classically conditioned through experience Quickly learned, lasts long Real life applications Coyotes and sheep Bears and military Aversion therapy and alcoholism Behaviorism The attempt to understand observable activity in terms of observable stimuli and observable responses John B. Watson (1913) B. F. Skinner (1938) Classical Conditioning: Conditioned Emotional Response Avoidance learning Conditioned phobias Little Albert • Biological preparedness • Contrapreparedness – Easy to develop a snake phobia – Hard to develop a car door phobia You Tube Connection Classical Conditioning Stimulus generalization Stimulus discrimination Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses Little Albert– white rat, noise Stimulus generalization – stimuli similar to CS, same power to elicit CR (rats to dogs, rabbits Counterconditioning – conditioned to have positive (systematic desensitization) Stimulus discrimination – CR occurs in response to only specific stimuli Advertisers use classical conditioning You Tube Connection Extinction of a Conditioned Response Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears Spontaneous Recovery Reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning 20 Extinction of a Conditioned Response Acquisition, Extinction, & Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning Applied Drug overdoses Smoking: environmental cues Systematic desensitization Advertising: sex appeal Taste aversion Conditioning and the immune system Types of Learning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive and social learning Operant Conditioning Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened, depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences 24 Operant Conditioning Thorndike’s puzzle box Law of Effect: actions that have positive outcomes are likely repeated Skinner box Operant Conditioning: Principles Stimulus-Response Reinforcement Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement • Punishment – Positive punishment – Negative punishment Operant Conditioning: Examples Tantrums are punished: fewer tantrums Tantrums bring attention: more tantrums Slot machine pays out: gamble more Reward dog for sitting: dog is likely to sit How does this happen? How Operant Conditioning Works Reinforcement A process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated Reinforcer Primary Secondary 28 How Operant Conditioning Works Positive Reinforcers Stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response Negative Reinforcers Unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated How Operant Conditioning Works Punishment Stimulus that decreases the probability that a prior behavior will occur again Positive punishment Adding something Negative punishment Removing something Effective Punishment Should be Swift Consistent Appropriately aversive Challenges Physical punishment may be imitated May fear the person who punishes Most effective when paired with reinforcers Problems with Punishment Does not teach or promote alternative, acceptable behavior May produce undesirable results such as hostility, passivity, fear Likely to be temporary May model aggression Table 5-3, p. 236 Weblink Weblink Web Link 34 5 Minutes and 23 seconds Paper 5 Minutes and 23 seconds Paper You have a child who you adopted from an Eastern European orphanage when the child was seven years old. For the first two years with you, her behavior was fine and she spent a great deal of energy learning to speak English and adjust to life in the US. When she was nine, she began running away from home, always found hiding close to home. Eventually she began to take/make weapons and threaten to use them against anyone who tried to capture her. By the time she was fifteen, she had been hospitalized at least ten times and given many different diagnoses. Her self-abusive behaviors worsened as well. She needed to be on constant 1:1 within the intensive residential treatment program and still found multiple means of harming herself such as swallowing batteries, putting paperclips under her skin or piercing her stomach with them (required surgery), hanging herself, bang her head until she had a concussion, starved herself until she needed to be tube fed, etc. You are at your wit’s end and don’t know where else to look. You hear about Judge Rottenburg center and the aversive treatment available there. What would you do? A Review: How Operant Conditioning Works Reinforcement and Punishment Figure 3 of Chapter 5 Operant Conditioning Terms Shaping Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Discriminative Stimulus Schedules of Reinforcement Building Complex Behaviors Shaping Gradual reinforcement of successive approximations of target behavior Used to train animals to do complex tricks The Power of Shaping Discriminative Stimuli Environmental cues that tell us when a particular response is likely to be reinforced Reinforcement Schedules Continuous—every correct response is reinforced; good way to get a low frequency behavior to occur Partial—only some correct responses are reinforced; good way to make a behavior resistant to extinction Partial Schedules—Ratio Ratio schedules are based on number of responses emitted Fixed ratio (FR)—a reinforcer is delivered after a certain (fixed) number of correct responses Variable ratio (VR)—a reinforcer is delivered after an average number of responses, but varies from trial to trial Ratio Responses FR—highest level of responding VR—high rate with few breaks Partial Schedules—Interval Interval schedules are based on time Fixed interval (FI)—reinforcer is delivered for the first response after a fixed period of time has elapsed Variable interval (VI)—reinforcer is delivered for the first response after an average time has elapsed, differs between trials Interval Responses FI—steady schedule with “scalloped” look, responses drop off right after reinforcer VI—steady, consistent schedule of response Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-Ratio Schedule Reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses. Variable-Ratio Schedule Occurs after a varying number of responses Figure 4 of Chapter 5 A Review: Schedules of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed-Interval Schedule Provides reinforcement for a response only if a fixed time period has elapsed Overall rates of response are relatively low. Variable-Interval Schedule The time between reinforcements varies based on an average rather than being fixed. Contemporary Views of Operant Conditioning Cognitive map—term for a mental representation of the layout of a familiar environment Latent learning—learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement, but is not demonstrated until a reinforcer is available Learned helplessness—phenomenon where exposure to inescapable and uncontrollable aversive events produces passive behavior Discrimination and Generalization in Operant Conditioning Stimulus control training Behavior is reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus, but not in its absence. Discriminative stimulus Signals the likelihood that reinforcement will follow a response Behavior Analysis and Behavior Modification Techniques Identify goals and target behaviors Design a data-recording system and record preliminary data Select a behavior-change strategy Implement the program Keep careful records after the program is implemented Evaluate and alter the ongoing program Cognitive Approaches to Learning Can all learning be explained by operant and classical conditioning processes? What is the role of cognition and thought in learning? Cognitive Learning Theory An approach that states that learning is best understood in terms of thought processes, or cognitions People develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response. Latent Learning New behavior is learned but not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it. Learning occurs without reinforcement. Insight Learning “Aha” experience Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation Learning by watching the behavior of another person, or model The social cognitive approach to learning Albert Bandura Observational Learning Bandura’s Bobo doll study You Tube Connection Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter? Recent research supports the claim that watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively. Does Culture Influence How We Learn? Relational learning style People master material best through exposure to a full unit or phenomenon. Analytical learning style People master material best when they can carry out an initial analysis of the principles and components underlying a phenomenon or situation. 64 Does Culture Influence How We Learn? Analytical versus Relational Approaches to Learning Figure 7 of Chapter 5