Download Chapter 12 The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance

Chapter 12
• The Chromosomal Basis
of Inheritance
Overview: Locating Genes Along Chromosomes
• Mendel’s “hereditary factors” were genes,
though this wasn’t known at the time
• Today we can show that genes are located on
chromosomes
• The location of a particular gene can be seen
by tagging isolated chromosomes with a
fluorescent dye that highlights the gene
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-1
Concept 15.1: Mendelian inheritance has its
physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes
• Mitosis and meiosis were first described in the
late 1800s
• The chromosome theory of inheritance
states:
– Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) on
chromosomes
– Chromosomes undergo segregation and independent
assortment
• The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis
was said to account for Mendel’s laws of
segregation and independent assortment
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-2
P Generation
Yellow-round
seeds (YYRR)
Y
Y
R
r

R
Green-wrinkled
seeds ( yyrr)
y
y
r
Meiosis
Fertilization
y
R Y
Gametes
r
All F1 plants produce
yellow-round seeds (YyRr)
F1 Generation
R
R
y
r
Y
Y
LAW OF SEGREGATION
The two alleles for each gene
separate during gamete
formation.
y
r
LAW OF INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT Alleles of genes
on nonhomologous
chromosomes assort
independently during gamete
formation.
Meiosis
R
r
Y
y
r
R
Y
y
Metaphase I
1
1
R
r
Y
y
r
R
Y
y
Anaphase I
R
r
Y
y
Metaphase II
r
R
Y
y
2
2
Y
Y
Gametes
R
R
1/
F2 Generation
4 YR
y
r
r
r
1/
4
Y
Y
y
r
1/
yr
4 Yr
y
y
R
R
1/
4 yR
An F1  F1 cross-fertilization
3
3
9
:3
:3
:1
Fig. 15-2a
Green-wrinkled
seeds ( yyrr)
Yellow-round
seeds (YYRR)
P Generation
Y
Y
R R
r

y
y
r
Meiosis
Fertilization
Gametes
R Y
y
r
All F1 plants produce
yellow-round seeds (YyRr)
Fig. 15-2b
All F1 plants produce
yellow-round seeds (YyRr)
0.5 mm
F1 Generation
R
R
y
r
Y
LAW OF SEGREGATION
The two alleles for each gene
separate during gamete
formation.
y
r
Y
LAW OF INDEPENDENT
ASSORTMENT Alleles of genes
on nonhomologous
chromosomes assort
independently during gamete
formation.
Meiosis
r
R
Y
y
r
R
Metaphase I
Y
y
1
1
r
R
r
R
Y
y
Anaphase I
Y
y
r
R
Metaphase II
R
r
2
2
Gametes
y
Y
Y
R
R
1
4
YR
r
1
3
4
yr
Y
Y
y
r
y
Y
y
Y
r
r
14
Yr
y
y
R
R
14
yR
3
Fig. 15-2c
F2 Generation
An F1  F1 cross-fertilization
3
3
9
:3
:3
:1
Morgan’s Experimental Evidence: Scientific
Inquiry
• The first solid evidence associating a specific
gene with a specific chromosome came from
Thomas Hunt Morgan, an embryologist
• Morgan’s experiments with fruit flies provided
convincing evidence that chromosomes are the
location of Mendel’s heritable factors
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Morgan’s Choice of Experimental Organism
• Several characteristics make fruit flies a
convenient organism for genetic studies:
– They breed at a high rate
– A generation can be bred every two weeks
– They have only four pairs of chromosomes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Morgan noted wild type, or normal,
phenotypes that were common in the fly
populations
• Traits alternative to the wild type are called
mutant phenotypes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-3
Correlating Behavior of a Gene’s Alleles with
Behavior of a Chromosome Pair
• In one experiment, Morgan mated male flies
with white eyes (mutant) with female flies with
red eyes (wild type)
– The F1 generation all had red eyes
– The F2 generation showed the 3:1 red:white
eye ratio, but only males had white eyes
• Morgan determined that the white-eyed mutant
allele must be located on the X chromosome
• Morgan’s finding supported the chromosome
theory of inheritance
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-4
EXPERIMENT
P
Generation

F1
Generation
All offspring
had red eyes
RESULTS
F2
Generation
CONCLUSION
P
Generation
w+
X
X

w+
X
Y
w
Eggs
F1
Generation
w+
Sperm
w+
w+
w
w+
Eggs
F2
Generation
w
w+
w
Sperm
w+
w+
w+
w
w
w+
Fig. 15-4a
EXPERIMENT
P
Generation
F1
Generation

All offspring
had red eyes
Fig. 15-4b
RESULTS
F2
Generation
Fig. 15-4c
CONCLUSION
P
Generation
w+
X
X

w+
X
Y
w
Eggs
F1
Generation
Sperm
w+
w+
w+
w
w+
Eggs
F2
Generation
w
w+
Sperm
w+
w+
w
w
w
w+
Concept 15.2: Sex-linked genes exhibit unique
patterns of inheritance
• In humans and some other animals, there is a
chromosomal basis of sex determination
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
The Chromosomal Basis of Sex
• In humans and other mammals, there are two
varieties of sex chromosomes: a larger X
chromosome and a smaller Y chromosome
• Only the ends of the Y chromosome have
regions that are homologous with the X
chromosome
• The SRY gene on the Y chromosome codes for
the development of testes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-5
X
Y
• Females are XX, and males are XY
• Each ovum contains an X chromosome, while
a sperm may contain either an X or a Y
chromosome
• Other animals have different methods of sex
determination
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-6
44 +
XY
44 +
XX
Parents
22 +
22 +
or Y
X
Sperm
+
44 +
XX
or
22 +
X
Egg
44 +
XY
Zygotes (offspring)
(a) The X-Y system
22 +
XX
22 +
X
76 +
ZW
76 +
ZZ
32
(Diploid)
16
(Haploid)
(b) The X-0 system
(c) The Z-W system
(d) The haplo-diploid system
Fig. 15-6a
44 +
XY
44 +
XX
Parents
22 +
22 +
or Y
X
Sperm
44 +
XX
22 +
X
+
Egg
or
44 +
XY
Zygotes (offspring)
(a) The X-Y system
Fig. 15-6b
22 +
XX
(b) The X-0 system
22 +
X
Fig. 15-6c
76 +
ZW
(c) The Z-W system
76 +
ZZ
Fig. 15-6d
32
(Diploid)
(d) The haplo-diploid system
16
(Haploid)
Inheritance of Sex-Linked Genes
• The sex chromosomes have genes for many
characters unrelated to sex
• A gene located on either sex chromosome is
called a sex-linked gene
• In humans, sex-linked usually refers to a gene
on the larger X chromosome
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Sex-linked genes follow specific patterns of
inheritance
• For a recessive sex-linked trait to be expressed
– A female needs two copies of the allele
– A male needs only one copy of the allele
• Sex-linked recessive disorders are much more
common in males than in females
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-7
XNXN
Sperm Xn

Xn Y
(a)
Sperm XN
Y
Eggs XN XNXn XNY
XN
XNXn

XNY
Xn
(b)
Sperm Xn
Y
Eggs XN XNXN XNY
XNXn XNY
XNXn

Xn Y
Y
Eggs XN XNXn XNY
Xn XN Xn Y
Xn
(c)
Xn Xn Xn Y
• Some disorders caused by recessive alleles on
the X chromosome in humans:
– Color blindness
– Duchenne muscular dystrophy
– Hemophilia
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
X Inactivation in Female Mammals
• In mammalian females, one of the two X
chromosomes in each cell is randomly
inactivated during embryonic development
• The inactive X condenses into a Barr body
• If a female is heterozygous for a particular
gene located on the X chromosome, she will be
a mosaic for that character
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-8
X chromosomes
Early embryo:
Two cell
populations
in adult cat:
Active X
Allele for
orange fur
Allele for
black fur
Cell division and
X chromosome
inactivation
Active X
Inactive X
Black fur
Orange fur
Concept 15.3: Linked genes tend to be inherited
together because they are located near each other on
the same chromosome
• Each chromosome has hundreds or thousands
of genes
• Genes located on the same chromosome that
tend to be inherited together are called linked
genes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
How Linkage Affects Inheritance
• Morgan did other experiments with fruit flies to
see how linkage affects inheritance of two
characters
• Morgan crossed flies that differed in traits of
body color and wing size
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-UN1
b vg
b+ vg+
Parents
in testcross
Most
offspring

b vg
b vg
b+ vg+
b vg
or
b vg
b vg
Fig. 15-9-1
EXPERIMENT
P Generation (homozygous)
Wild type
(gray body,
normal wings)
b+ b+ vg+ vg+

Double mutant
(black body,
vestigial wings)
b b vg vg
Fig. 15-9-2
EXPERIMENT
P Generation (homozygous)
Wild type
(gray body,
normal wings)

b b vg vg
b+ b+ vg+ vg+
F1 dihybrid
(wild type)
b+ b vg+ vg
Double mutant
(black body,
vestigial wings)
TESTCROSS

Double mutant
b b vg vg
Fig. 15-9-3
EXPERIMENT
P Generation (homozygous)
Wild type
(gray body,
normal wings)
Double mutant
(black body,
vestigial wings)

b b vg vg
b+ b+ vg+ vg+
F1 dihybrid
(wild type)
Double mutant
TESTCROSS

b+ b vg+ vg
Testcross
offspring
b b vg vg
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
Wild type
(gray-normal)
Blackvestigial
Grayvestigial
Blacknormal
b+ b vg+ vg
b b vg vg b+ b vg vg b b vg+ vg
Eggs
b+ vg+
b vg
Sperm
Fig. 15-9-4
EXPERIMENT
P Generation (homozygous)
Wild type
(gray body,
normal wings)
Double mutant
(black body,
vestigial wings)

b b vg vg
b+ b+ vg+ vg+
F1 dihybrid
(wild type)
Double mutant
TESTCROSS

b+ b vg+ vg
Testcross
offspring
b b vg vg
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
Wild type
(gray-normal)
Blackvestigial
Grayvestigial
Blacknormal
b+ b vg+ vg
b b vg vg b+ b vg vg b b vg+ vg
Eggs
b+ vg+
b vg
Sperm
PREDICTED RATIOS
If genes are located on different chromosomes:
1
:
1
:
1
:
1
If genes are located on the same chromosome and
parental alleles are always inherited together:
1
:
1
:
0
:
0
965
:
944
:
206
:
185
RESULTS
• Morgan found that body color and wing size
are usually inherited together in specific
combinations (parental phenotypes)
• He noted that these genes do not assort
independently, and reasoned that they were on
the same chromosome
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• However, nonparental phenotypes were also
produced
• Understanding this result involves exploring
genetic recombination, the production of
offspring with combinations of traits differing
from either parent
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Genetic Recombination and Linkage
• The genetic findings of Mendel and Morgan
relate to the chromosomal basis of
recombination
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Recombination of Unlinked Genes: Independent
Assortment of Chromosomes
• Mendel observed that combinations of traits in
some offspring differ from either parent
• Offspring with a phenotype matching one of the
parental phenotypes are called parental types
• Offspring with nonparental phenotypes (new
combinations of traits) are called recombinant
types, or recombinants
• A 50% frequency of recombination is observed
for any two genes on different chromosomes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-UN2
Gametes from yellow-round
heterozygous parent (YyRr)
Gametes from greenwrinkled homozygous
recessive parent ( yyrr)
YR
yr
Yr
yR
YyRr
yyrr
Yyrr
yyRr
yr
Parentaltype
offspring
Recombinant
offspring
Recombination of Linked Genes: Crossing Over
• Morgan discovered that genes can be linked,
but the linkage was incomplete, as evident
from recombinant phenotypes
• Morgan proposed that some process must
sometimes break the physical connection
between genes on the same chromosome
• That mechanism was the crossing over of
homologous chromosomes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-10
Gray body, normal wings
(F1 dihybrid)
Testcross
parents
Replication
of chromosomes
Meiosis I
Black body, vestigial wings
(double mutant)
b+ vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
Replication
of chromosomes
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
b+ vg+
Meiosis I and II
b+ vg
b vg+
b vg
Meiosis II
Recombinant
chromosomes
Eggs
Testcross
offspring
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
965
944
206
185
Wild type
(gray-normal)
Blackvestigial
Grayvestigial
Blacknormal
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
Parental-type offspring Recombinant offspring
391 recombinants
Recombination
 100 = 17%
=
frequency
2,300 total offspring
b vg
Sperm
Fig. 15-10a
Testcross
parents
Black body, vestigial wings
(double mutant)
Gray body, normal wings
(F1 dihybrid)
Replication
of chromosomes
Meiosis I
b+ vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
b+ vg+
b+
Meiosis I and II
vg
b vg+
b vg
Meiosis II
Recombinant
chromosomes
b+ vg+
b vg
Eggs
b+ vg
b vg+
b vg
Sperm
Replication
of chromosomes
Fig. 15-10b
Recombinant
chromosomes
Eggs
Testcross
offspring
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
944
Wild type
Black(gray-normal) vestigial
206
Grayvestigial
185
Blacknormal
965
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
Parental-type offspring
Recombinant offspring
391 recombinants
Recombination
 100 = 17%
=
frequency
2,300 total offspring
b vg
Sperm
Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using
Recombination Data: Scientific Inquiry
• Alfred Sturtevant, one of Morgan’s students,
constructed a genetic map, an ordered list of
the genetic loci along a particular chromosome
• Sturtevant predicted that the farther apart two
genes are, the higher the probability that a
crossover will occur between them and
therefore the higher the recombination
frequency
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• A linkage map is a genetic map of a
chromosome based on recombination
frequencies
• Distances between genes can be expressed as
map units; one map unit, or centimorgan,
represents a 1% recombination frequency
• Map units indicate relative distance and order,
not precise locations of genes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-11
RESULTS
Recombination
frequencies
9%
Chromosome
9.5%
17%
b
cn
vg
• Genes that are far apart on the same
chromosome can have a recombination
frequency near 50%
• Such genes are physically linked, but
genetically unlinked, and behave as if found on
different chromosomes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Sturtevant used recombination frequencies to
make linkage maps of fruit fly genes
• Using methods like chromosomal banding,
geneticists can develop cytogenetic maps of
chromosomes
• Cytogenetic maps indicate the positions of
genes with respect to chromosomal features
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-12
Short
aristae
0
Long aristae
(appendages
on head)
Mutant phenotypes
Black
body
48.5
Gray
body
Cinnabar Vestigial
eyes
wings
57.5
Red
eyes
67.0
Normal
wings
Wild-type phenotypes
Brown
eyes
104.5
Red
eyes
Concept 15.4: Alterations of chromosome number
or structure cause some genetic disorders
• Large-scale chromosomal alterations often
lead to spontaneous abortions (miscarriages)
or cause a variety of developmental disorders
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Abnormal Chromosome Number
• In nondisjunction, pairs of homologous
chromosomes do not separate normally during
meiosis
• As a result, one gamete receives two of the
same type of chromosome, and another
gamete receives no copy
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-13-1
Meiosis I
Nondisjunction
(a) Nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes in meiosis I
(b) Nondisjunction of sister
chromatids in meiosis II
Fig. 15-13-2
Meiosis I
Nondisjunction
Meiosis II
Nondisjunction
(a) Nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes in meiosis I
(b) Nondisjunction of sister
chromatids in meiosis II
Fig. 15-13-3
Meiosis I
Nondisjunction
Meiosis II
Nondisjunction
Gametes
n+1
n+1
n–1
n–1
n+1
n–1
n
Number of chromosomes
(a) Nondisjunction of homologous
chromosomes in meiosis I
(b) Nondisjunction of sister
chromatids in meiosis II
n
• Aneuploidy results from the fertilization of
gametes in which nondisjunction occurred
• Offspring with this condition have an abnormal
number of a particular chromosome
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• A monosomic zygote has only one copy of a
particular chromosome
• A trisomic zygote has three copies of a
particular chromosome
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Polyploidy is a condition in which an organism
has more than two complete sets of
chromosomes
– Triploidy (3n) is three sets of chromosomes
– Tetraploidy (4n) is four sets of chromosomes
• Polyploidy is common in plants, but not animals
• Polyploids are more normal in appearance than
aneuploids
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-14
Alterations of Chromosome Structure
• Breakage of a chromosome can lead to four
types of changes in chromosome structure:
– Deletion removes a chromosomal segment
– Duplication repeats a segment
– Inversion reverses a segment within a
chromosome
– Translocation moves a segment from one
chromosome to another
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-15
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
A B C D E
F G H
A B C D E
F G H
A B C D E
F G H
A B C D E
F G H
Deletion
Duplication
A B C E
F G H
A B C B C D E
Inversion
A D C B E
R
F G H
M N O C D E
Reciprocal
translocation
M N O P Q
F G H
A B P Q
R
F G H
Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal
Alterations
• Alterations of chromosome number and
structure are associated with some serious
disorders
• Some types of aneuploidy appear to upset the
genetic balance less than others, resulting in
individuals surviving to birth and beyond
• These surviving individuals have a set of
symptoms, or syndrome, characteristic of the
type of aneuploidy
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
• Down syndrome is an aneuploid condition that
results from three copies of chromosome 21
• It affects about one out of every 700 children
born in the United States
• The frequency of Down syndrome increases
with the age of the mother, a correlation that
has not been explained
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-16
Fig. 15-16a
Fig. 15-16b
Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes
• Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes produces
a variety of aneuploid conditions
• Klinefelter syndrome is the result of an extra
chromosome in a male, producing XXY
individuals
• Monosomy X, called Turner syndrome,
produces X0 females, who are sterile; it is the
only known viable monosomy in humans
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Disorders Caused by Structurally Altered
Chromosomes
• The syndrome cri du chat (“cry of the cat”),
results from a specific deletion in chromosome
5
• A child born with this syndrome is mentally
retarded and has a catlike cry; individuals
usually die in infancy or early childhood
• Certain cancers, including chronic
myelogenous leukemia (CML), are caused by
translocations of chromosomes
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-17
Normal chromosome 9
Normal chromosome 22
Reciprocal
translocation
Translocated chromosome 9
Translocated chromosome 22
(Philadelphia chromosome)
Concept 15.5: Some inheritance patterns are
exceptions to the standard chromosome theory
• There are two normal exceptions to Mendelian
genetics
• One exception involves genes located in the
nucleus, and the other exception involves
genes located outside the nucleus
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Genomic Imprinting
• For a few mammalian traits, the phenotype
depends on which parent passed along the
alleles for those traits
• Such variation in phenotype is called genomic
imprinting
• Genomic imprinting involves the silencing of
certain genes that are “stamped” with an
imprint during gamete production
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-18
Paternal
chromosome
Normal Igf2 allele
is expressed
Maternal
chromosome
Normal Igf2 allele
is not expressed
Wild-type mouse
(normal size)
(a) Homozygote
Mutant Igf2 allele
inherited from mother
Normal size mouse
(wild type)
Mutant Igf2 allele
inherited from father
Dwarf mouse
(mutant)
Normal Igf2 allele
is expressed
Mutant Igf2 allele
is expressed
Mutant Igf2 allele
is not expressed
Normal Igf2 allele
is not expressed
(b) Heterozygotes
Fig. 15-18a
Paternal
chromosome
Normal Igf2 allele
is expressed
Maternal
chromosome
Normal Igf2 allele
is not expressed
(a) Homozygote
Wild-type mouse
(normal size)
Fig. 15-18b
Mutant Igf2 allele
inherited from mother
Normal size mouse
(wild type)
Mutant Igf2 allele
inherited from father
Dwarf mouse
(mutant)
Normal Igf2 allele
is expressed
Mutant Igf2 allele
is expressed
Mutant Igf2 allele
is not expressed
Normal Igf2 allele
is not expressed
(b) Heterozygotes
• It appears that imprinting is the result of the
methylation (addition of –CH3) of DNA
• Genomic imprinting is thought to affect only a
small fraction of mammalian genes
• Most imprinted genes are critical for embryonic
development
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-UN3
Inheritance of Organelle Genes
• Extranuclear genes (or cytoplasmic genes) are
genes found in organelles in the cytoplasm
• Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other plant
plastids carry small circular DNA molecules
• Extranuclear genes are inherited maternally
because the zygote’s cytoplasm comes from
the egg
• The first evidence of extranuclear genes came
from studies on the inheritance of yellow or
white patches on leaves of an otherwise green
plant
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-19
• Some defects in mitochondrial genes prevent
cells from making enough ATP and result in
diseases that affect the muscular and nervous
systems
– For example, mitochondrial myopathy and
Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Fig. 15-UN4
Sperm
P generation D
gametes
C
B
A
Egg
E
+
c
b
a
d
F
f
The alleles of unlinked
genes are either on
separate chromosomes
(such as d and e) or so
far apart on the same
chromosome (c and f)
that they assort
independently.
This F1 cell has 2n = 6
chromosomes and is
heterozygous for all six
genes shown (AaBbCcDdEeFf).
Red = maternal; blue = paternal.
D
Each chromosome
has hundreds or
thousands of genes.
Four (A, B, C, F) are
shown on this one.
e
C
B
A
F
e
d
E
cb
a
f
Genes on the same chromosome whose alleles are so
close together that they do
not assort independently
(such as a, b, and c) are said
to be linked.
Fig. 15-UN5
Fig. 15-UN6
Fig. 15-UN7
Fig. 15-UN8
Fig. 15-UN9
You should now be able to:
1. Explain the chromosomal theory of
inheritance and its discovery
2. Explain why sex-linked diseases are more
common in human males than females
3. Distinguish between sex-linked genes and
linked genes
4. Explain how meiosis accounts for
recombinant phenotypes
5. Explain how linkage maps are constructed
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
6. Explain how nondisjunction can lead to
aneuploidy
7. Define trisomy, triploidy, and polyploidy
8. Distinguish among deletions, duplications,
inversions, and translocations
9. Explain genomic imprinting
10.Explain why extranuclear genes are not
inherited in a Mendelian fashion
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings