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Finals Study Guide Semester 2 Honors Biology Unit 9- Plants Objectives Ch. 16 1. Describe 8 terrestrial adaptations of plants 1.Mycorrhizae-root-fungus combinations - fungi absorb water and minerals from soil, plant sugar nourishes fungi 2.Stomata - microscopic pores through leaf’s surface, exchange CO2 and O2 3. Cuticle - waxy layer coating leaves and other aerial parts, helps retain water. 4. Lignin - chemical which hardens cell walls (skeleton) 5. Roots and shoots 6. Xylem tissue (transports water up) and Phloem tissue (transports food around) 7. Protected embryo: gametangia - a jacket of protective cells surrounding a moist chamber where gametes can develop w/o drying out (in female parent) 8. Seed dispersal - rely on wind or animals 2. Explain how plants evolved from green algae Charophyceans are a group of multicellular green algae closest to plants in evolution. Next came 4 major periods of plant evolution: bryophytes (mosses); ferns; gymnosperms (conifers); and angiosperms (flowering). 3. Characterize the highlights of plant evolution by describing the following plant types, how they have adapted to land, and their basic characteristics: A. Bryophytes (mosses) Bryophytes - mosses = many plants growing in a tight pack. • No waxy cuticle and do not retain developing embryos w/i mother plant’s gametangium. • Need water to reproduce; sperm are flagellated, must swim through water to reach eggs • No vascular tissue to carry water(grow low to ground) and lack lignin • Like damp, shady places • Green spongy plant = gametophyte (male & female are separate plant shoots)(n) • Taller brown shoot with a capsule, grows out of gametohyte = sporophyte (2n) • Archegonium (female gametophyte) • (Antheridium = male gametopyte.) 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. • • • • • • • • • B. Ferns Ferns - diverse with 12,000 species, most in tropics, many in temperate woodlands of U.S. Evolution of vascular tissue (xylem and phloem) Sperm are still flagellated-must swim through a film of water to fertilize eggs Are still seedless - have spores During Carboniferous Period, ferns in swamp forests converted to coal (black sedimentary rock made up of fossilized plant material) A. Gymnosperms Gymnosperms-cone-bearing seed plants (conifers) Complete life cycle on dry land Withstand long, harsh winters Ex: Pines, firs, spruces, junipers, cedars, redwoods Tallest, largest, oldest organisms on Earth Nearly all are evergreens-retain leaves throughout year Needle-shaped leaves-survive dry seasons. Thick cuticle and stomata in pits reduce water loss They are our wood & paper source. Wood= vascular tissue with lignin Greater development of the sporophyte generation-gametophytes live in cones. B. Angiosperms Angiosperms - flowering plants, dominate most regions 250,000 species vs. 700 conifer species Supply nearly all our food and fiber for textiles, some lumber Refined vascular tissue - water transport more efficient Evolution of flower = responsible for unparalleled success Flowers - display male and female parts Insects and animals transfer pollen from male part of one flower, to female part of another flower. Advantage? (vs. wind)________ Flower = short stem w. modified leaves: sepals, petals, stamens, carpels. 9. Describe how plants are being cut down, and how they can be a non-renewable dsresource: A. Coniferous forest B. Rainforest they give us food, clothing, energy supplies, lumber, paper, oxygen, water, recreation, art, and products such as rubber. And clear-cutting practices have become common, often exceeding the rate of reforestation. Objectives Ch. 28 10. Describe and explore in the laboratory, the structure and function of a flowering plant. Include descriptions of the following: A. Monocots and Dicots • • Monocots include orchids, palms, lilies, grains, grasses. Dicots include shrubs, trees (except for conifers), ornamental plants, many food crops. B. Plant organs: roots, stems, leaves 1. Roots: Root hairs-increase surface area of root for absorption Large taproots - store food such as starch for plant (Ex: carrots, turnips, sugar beets, sweet potatoes.) 2. Stems - Terminal bud is at apex of stem when plant stem is growing in length. Axillary buds, in angle formed by a leaf and stem) are dormant. Terminal bud produces hormones inhibiting growth of axillary buds = apical dominance, so plant can grow up to sun. Axillary buds begin growing and develop into branches under certain conditions. 3 kinds of Modified stems: Runner in a strawberry plant = horizontal stem - new plants emerge from tip of runner = asexual reproduction Rhizome of an iris plant =horizontal underground stems = store food, & can bud new plants Tubers are rhizomes ending in enlarged structures (potatoes). Eyes of potato are axillary buds, can grow when planted. 3. Leaves - flat blades (for light collection) and petioles (joins leaf to stem.) Celery is a big petiole. Tendrils = modified leaves for climbing and support . Spines of a cactus = modified leaf parts protecting plant. Cactus stem is photosynthetic. C. Types of plant cells: 1. parenchyma Parenchyma cells - most abundant cell, for food storage, photosynthesis. Only primary cell walls. 2. collenchyma Collenchyma cells - provide support in growing parts of plant. Only primary cell walls. 3. sclerenchyma Sclerenchyma cells - have thick secondary walls with lignin (wood). When mature, most are dead - rigid cells support plants. Make rope and clothing. 4. water-conducting 5. food-conducting D. Plant tissues: 1. dermal tissue (epidermis, stomata) Dermal-covers, protects, waxy coating Stomata - in epidermis of leaf and some stems, are tiny pores between guard cells - minimizes water loss, allow gas exchange 2. vascular tissue (xylem, phloem) Xylem - contains water conducting cells - move water & minerals up stem Phloem -contains food conducting cells -transport sugars from leaves or storage tissue to other parts of plant 3. ground tissue (mesophyll) Ground - bulk of young plant, fills spaces between epidermis and vascular. Photosynthesis, storage, support. Types of ground tissue: Cortex - in root,cells store food, take up water & minerals. Endodermis - selective barrier in cortex-determines which substances pass between cortex and vascular tissue. Pith - fills center of stem in dicots, food storage. Mesophyll - ground tissue of a leaf, for gas exchange and photoshythesis 11. Depict the life cycle of a flowering plant. A. The flower, parts of Upper epidermis, Lower epidermis, Mesophyll, Cuticle, Vein, Xylem, Phloem, Guard cells, Stomata, Palisade Layer, Spongy layer B. Pollination C. Fertilization (double) Double fertilization occurs: – one sperm fertilizes egg forming diploid zygote which becomes the embryo; – other sperm joins to form the triploid central cell, which develops into endosperm, nourishing the embryo D. Seed formation Seed Formation: Embryo develops cotyledons. These organs absorb nutrients from endosperm. Embryo develops into mature seed with tough protective seed coat enclosing endosperm. Seed becomes dormant until seed germinates. Dormancy allows time for seed dispersal, favors survival for good environmental contitions E. Fruit formation Fruit formation: Fruit = mature ovary Houses and protects seeds, disperses them from parent F. Seed germation • • • • • • • Seed Germination: Seed takes up water and expands, ruptures its seed coat Embryo resumes growth (from dormancy) Embryotic root emerges, then shoot; a hook forms near its tip (protection) True leaves expand from shoot tip, and photosynthesize In pea, cotyledons remain behind in soil and decompose (see above) In beans, cotyledons emerge from soil and become seed leaves, which photosynthesize Only small fraction of seedlings live to reproduce 12. Describe how plants grow: A. annuals, biennials, perennials Annuals - mature, reproduce and die in 1 year or growing season. Ex: wheat, corn, rice, impatients Biennials - live for 2 years; flower and seed occur during second year. Ex: carrots Perennials - live and reproduce for many years. Ex: trees, shrubs, some grasses. B. Primary growth- lengthening (meristems) Primary Growth = lengthening Meristem - cells that divide and generate new cells and tissues C. Secondary growth – thickening 1. vascular cambium in cylindrical meristem (secondary xylem/wood) Wood - dead xylem tissue Vascular cambium - gives rise to secondary phloem and secondary xylem. Secondary xylem is produced each year = thickness of perennial and/or wood. This results in annual growth of rings. Each tree ring has cylinder of spring wood (larger cells) and of summer wood. 2. bark (secondary phloem) Everything external to the vascular cambium ( secondary phloem, cork cambium, cork) = bark 3. cork cambium, cork cells Cork cambium - produces cork (dead when mature, protects stem) 4. outer bark Objectives Ch. 29 13. Define sap, and explain what it does in plants Sap -watery solutions moving through vascular system. In xylem it carries water and nutrients from roots to leaves and stems. In phloem it transports sugar already made, from leaves to other parts of plants. 14. Describe how plants acquire and transport nutrients A. Macronutrients Macronutrients-need in large amounts: carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and magnesium B. Micronutrients Micronutrients - need in extremely small amounts: iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, boron, nickel. Mainly components of enzymes. C. nutrient deficiencies Deficiencies - quality of soil affects our own nutrition - Corn on left grown in nitrogen rich soil; on right in nitrogen poor soil D. soil to roots Plants get CO2 from air (through stomata), minerals and H2O from soil,(through root hairs) and O2 from soil.(through stomata). A plant releases more O2 from photosynthesis than it consumes by respiration Plant nutrition: all minerals that enter a plant root are dissolved in water Go through epidermis & cortex of root; plasma membrane of root cells (selectively permeable); to xylem E. role of bacteria in nitrogen nutrition Bacteria help with nitrogen nutrition: 3 types of soil bacteria: 1. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria - converts N2 in air to ammonium 2. Ammonifying bacteria - adds ammonium by decomposing organic matter 3. Nitrifying bacteria - converts soil ammonium to nitrate - plants take this up Plants then convert nitrate back to ammonium to make proteins/organics. F. transport of water 1. transpiration Transpiration - greatest on sunny, warm, dry and windy days Leaf stomata can help plants adjust transpiration rates-controls opening by changing shape Open during day and close at night, saving water. May close during day if plant is losing water too fast. 2. 3. 4. 5. xylem cohesion/adhesion root hairs stomata/ guard cells G. transport of sugars 1. phloem Phloem sap moves in various directions in plant Phloem moves sugar from a source (leaf) to a sink (root or fruit) 2. direction of transport Pressure-flow mechanism - the building of water pressure at source end of phloem tube, and the reduction of water pressure at the sink end causes water to flow from source to sink, carrying sugar with it. 15. Understand the role that each of the following plant hormones has on a plant: A. Auxin Auxin-produced by apical meristem, stimulates growth of shoot-causes cells to elongate. Requires certain concentrations: too much = inhibits stem elongation. Usually, it inhibits roots (except in high concentrations it can elongate roots.) B. Ethylene Ethylene - a gas which triggers aging responses - fruit ripening, dropping of leaves. C. Cytokinins Cytokinins - growth regulators, promote cell division. In roots, embryos, fruits. Stimulate growth of axillary buds (branches and bushy.) D. Gibberellins Gibberellins - stimulates cell elongation and cell division in stems. Can influence fruit development. Used in grapes-larger and more farther apart in the cluster. E. Abscisic Acid (ABA) Abscisic Acid - slows growth. Ex: seed dormancy, esp. during adverse conditions During drought, causes stomata to close during wilting, preventing further water loss 11. Through research, an essay, and a PowerPoint presentation, explain the value of a coniferous forest and a rainforest, and the role forests have in reducing global warming. Honors Biology Unit 10- Cellular Energetics Topics: Atoms and Matter 1. Distinguish b/w elements, compounds, atoms, molecules, isotopes and ions Element – cannot be broken down into other substances 92 natural elements EX – oxygen, carbon, copper Each element has a symbol from its name Essential to life… (96%) Trace elements… (4%) Compound – a substance containing 2 or more elements in a fixed ratio More common than elements Atom – Indivisible – Greek Smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element Isotopes – elements with the same number of protons and electrons, but a different number of neutrons Radioactive Isotopes – the nucleus will decay, giving off particles and energy Molecule – formed by atoms held together by covalent bonds Ions are formed by either gaining or losing an electron. Atoms like to have full energy shells and will easily gain or lose 1-3 electrons to do it. 2. Compare and contrast physical and chemical properties of matter Matter – anything that occupies space and has mass Composed of chemical elements 3. Explain the importance of the structure of an atom, atomic number, mass number, atomic weight and valence in chemistry Atomic Structure – *Nucleus – central core of the atom, contains protons and neutrons *Proton – positively charged *Neutron – no charge *Orbitals - outside the nucleus *Electron – negatively charged Attraction between protons and electrons keep the electrons nearby the nucleus. Atomic number – same as the number of protons If the atom is electrically neutral (number of protons = number of electrons) then the atomic number also is the same as the number of electrons. Mass number – sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in a nucleus 4. Identify types of chemical bonds and their functions Chemical bonds – formed by atoms trying to fill the outer most electron shell Ionic bonds – attraction between oppositely charged ions (electron is transferred) Example – Na has 1é in its outer shell and Cl has 7é in its outer shell. Na can lose 1é to become Na+1 and and Cl can gain 1é to become Cl-1 and both will have a full outer shell. 5. Differentiate b/w reactants and products in chemical reactions Chemical Reaction – changes in the chemical composition of matter For a balanced chemical reaction the number of each element must be equal on both sides of the reaction. Reactions cannot create or destroy matter, it can just rearrange it. Reactants are usually the way the arrow is pointing away from Products are usually the way the arrow is pointing towards Ex: 6CO2 + 6H2O jgfkjljdkgjlkdfjgC6H12O6 + 6O2 REACTANTS PRODUCTS Topics: Energy and Cellular Respiration 1. Define the term energy and contrast potential and kinetic energy ENERGY – capacity to do work Kinetic Energy – energy of motion Potential Energy – energy because of its location or arrangement Conservation of Energy – energy can neither be created nor destroyed ENTROPY – measure of disorder or randomness Chemical Energy – energy stored in the chemical bonds of molecules; a form of potential energy 2. State the first and second laws of thermodynamics and relate them to the nature of energy transformations in living systems The First Law of Thermodynamics (Conservation) states that energy is always conserved, it cannot be created or destroyed. In essence, energy can be converted from one form into another. The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that "in all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state." This is also commonly referred to as entropy. 3. Distinguish b/w endergonic and exergonic reactions Energy releasing processes, ones that "generate" energy, are termed exergonic reactions. Reactions that require energy to initiate the reaction are known as endergonic reactions. 4. Illustrate the chemical structure of ATP and summarize its role in cellular metabolism ATP = adenosine triphosphate ATP powers cellular work directly ADP = adenosine diphosphate ATP contains stored energy and will release energy when it breaks the bond to a phosphate group to become ADP. Break bonds = release energy Create bonds = store energy 5. Define metabolism and relate to cellular respiration Metabolism All chemical processes that occur in cells EX – cellular respiration Series of reactions Respiration – harvests energy stored in sugars and organic molecules A. Mitochondria B. Consumers CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2 6. Recognize the basic mechanisms of energy release and storage and the role of chemical bonding As electrons “fall” from glucose to oxygen, the potential energy is unlocked. This rapid electron “fall” releases energy in the form of heat and light. Cellular respiration can harness this energy into small amounts for cells to use productively. 7. Determine the role of hydrogen carriers and differentiate b/w oxidation and reduction reactions Electrons bonded in the sugar molecule are transferred to oxygen by OxidationReduction Reactions (RedOx Reactions). Oxidation = lose of electrons Reduction = gain of electrons 8. Recognize the reactants, the products, the cellular location and the net production of ATP for the following phases of respiration: Glycolisis Glycolysis = splitting of sugar Splits glucose into two molecules of pyruvic acid Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. Generates a small amount of ATP directly. (2 ATP) Electrons are donated to the electron carrier NAD+. Does not require oxygen (Aerobic or Anaerobic process) Glycolysis generates ATP when enzymes transfer phosphate groups directly from fuel molecules to ADP. Krebs Cycle Pyruvic acid must be converted to Acetyl-CoA that can be used by the Krebs cycle. When the bonds of pyruvic acid are broken the electrons are stored in NADH. Later this is used to make ATP. Acetyl-CoA enters the Krebs cycle from Glycolysis. Completes the breakdown of sugar all the way to CO2. Occurs within the mitochondria. Generates a small amount of ATP directly. Captures more energy in the form of NADH and FADH2 that will be converted to ATP in the electron transport chain. Electron Transport Chain Electrons captured from food by NADH “fall” down the electron transport chain to oxygen. Occurs within the inner membranes of the mitochondria. Uses the energy released by the “fall” of electrons to pump H+ ions across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This creates a concentration gradient. The H+ ions tend to move back from high concentration to low concentration and therefore fuel the ATP synthase to create ATP from ADP. Generates a most of the ATP for the cell both directly and from electron carriers like NADH and FADH2. 9. Explain how alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation can be used to generate ATP in the absence of oxygen Lactic Acid Not enough or no oxygen present. Occurs in muscle cells. Glycolysis supplies the ATP. Not efficient compared to cellular respiration. Lactic acid is a waste product. Soreness and burning after exercise is due to lactic acid in the muscle tissue. Lactic acid is eventually converted back into pyruvic acid in the liver. Alcoholic Fermentation Fermentation is an anaerobic process (does not require oxygen). Yeast is fermented to produce the waste products ethyl alcohol and CO2. CO2 is what makes beer and champagne bubbly and bread dough to rise. Topics: Photosynthesis 1. Distinguish b/w autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition Photosynthesis converts energy of sunlight into the chemical energy of sugar and organic compounds. Almost all plants, some protists and some bacteria Autotrophs… An organism that makes all its own organic matter from inorganic nutrients Self feeders Require inorganic compounds - CO2, H2O and minerals Make organic compounds – carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids producers Heterotrophs… Cannot make organic molecules from inorganic ones Other feeders We must eat! Depend on autotrophs for their organic fuel and material for growth and repair consumers 2. Describe the structure of chloroplasts, their locations within plant cells, and explain how chloroplast structure relates to its function Chloroplasts – organelle responsible for photosynthesis Leaves are the major site of photosynthesis (all green parts of a plant have chlorophyll and chloroplasts and can undergo photosynthesis) 3. Describe wave-like particle behaviors of light and list the wavelengths of light that are most effective for photosynthesis Sunlight is radiation or electromagnetic energy. We are able to see only light that is reflected from an object. EX – green leaves absorb red-orange and blue-violet light; therefore, reflecting green light. Chloroplasts convert the absorbed energy. 4. Explain what happens when chlorophyll or accessory pigments absorb photons Photon – fixed quantity of light energy Pigment molecules absorb photons of light that “excite” the electrons to a higher energy state As the electron “falls” back to the normal state is releases energy as heat or light energy Photons of light “jump” from pigment to pigment until it reaches the Reaction Center containing chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll a – absorbs blue-violet and red light Participates directly in the light reactions Chlorophyll b – absorbs blue and orange light Helps light reactions by increasing the range of light that can be absorbed Carotenoids – absorb blue-green light Absorb and dissipate excessive light that may damage chlorophyll a 5. Distinguish b/w the locations and products and reactants of the light and dark reactions (Calvin Cycle) of photosynthesis Light Reactions Convert solar to chemical energy Synthesize ATP (energy storage) and NADPH (electron carrier) Calvin Cycle (Dark Reactions) Makes sugar from CO2 Uses ATP and NADPH from light reactions 6. Explain the function of the photosystems and trace electron flow through photosystems I and II Photosystems – have clusters of pigment molecules that act as antennae for photons of light. Next to the reaction center is the primary electron acceptor which traps the light excited electron energy into ATP or NADPH. 1. Water splitting photosystem – Light energy to extract electrons from water Releases O2 as a waste product 2. NADPH producing photosystem Produces NADPH by transferring light excited electrons from chlorophyll to NADP 7. Summarize the carbon-fixing reactions of the Calvin Cycle and describe changes that occur in the carbon skeletons or intermediates 8. Describe the role of ATP and NADPH in the Calvin Cycle 9. Distinguish b/w C3, C4, and CAM pathways, and describe the major consequences of photorespiration C3 Plants – use CO2 directly from the air EX – soybean, wheat, oats, rice… Dry weather can decrease the rate of photosynthesis and crop productivity because stomata are closed to prevent water loss and no CO2 gas exchange occurs. C4 Plants – use an enzyme to incorporate CO2 EX – corn, sorghum, sugarcane Save water without slowing photosynthesis When hot the stomata are closed to prevent water loss Continues sugar production by using an enzyme to incorporate CO2 into a 4 C compound instead of the normal 3 C compound. CAM Plants – opens stomata at night to let in CO2 and to prevent water loss Ex – pineapple, cacti, succulents Once the CO2 is inside the leaf it forms a 4 C compound Bank CO2 at night and release it to the Calvin Cycle during the day