Download 成人學習理論綜述 a summary of three adult learning

遠東學報第二十三卷第三期
中華民國九十五年九月出版
成人學習理論綜述
A SUMMARY OF THREE ADULT LEARNING THEORIES
杜約翰(John Duxbury) 美國南達科塔大學 教育博士
李分明 遠東科技大學應外系 副教授
摘
要
本文主要探討三種成人學習理論-行為主義學派、認知學派和人本主義學派。
行為主義學派是以 John B.Watson 以及 B.F.Skinner 等人的主張為主，此外行為
主義學派的新近理論也被論述。認知學派包含 Gestalt 完形學派、Jean Piaget、
Ausubel &Bruner、Gagne 等人的主張、及強調 Vygotsky 的時間序列發展學派
（Zone of Proximal Development）
。人本主義學派主要是論及 Abraham Maslow 和
Carl Rogers 等人的主張，他們的主張不同於行為學派，而認為人類可以控制自
己的命運。本文以人本主義學派以及作者的立論基礎作為結論。
關鍵字：行為主義學派、認知學派、人本主義學派
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John Duxbury, of Applied Foreign Language, Far East University
Fen-Ming Lee, Dept. of Applied Foreign Language, Far East University
ABSTRACT
This article presents three adult learning theories-behaviorist, cognitive, and
humanist orientation. The behaviorist orientation is concerned mostly with the
work of Jonn B. Watson and B.F.Skinner some current practices which incorporate
behavioristic models ave mentioned. The cognitive orientation is then discussed
with mention of the Gestalt psychologists, with Jean Piaget, Ausubel &Bruner,
Gagne, and finally with the emphasis of Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal
development”. The humanist ovientation talks mostly about the work and theories
of Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers which differs from the behavioral
predetermined orientation by asserting that people can control their own destinies.
The article concludes with the author’s humanistic orientation and the rationale for
this position.
Keywords：Behaviorist Orientation、Cognitive Orientation、Humanist Orientation
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BEHAVIORIST ORIENTATION
中華民國九十五年九月出版
a better society. Skinner reasoned that we needed to
Of all the disciplines in psychology, behaviorism
give up our personal freedom, including its
has had the most impact on general and adult
accompanying sense of dignity and personal worth, to
education (Elias, Merriam, 1980). This system of
improve our world.
psychology is concerned with the overt, observable
He was concerned with preventing our self
behavior of an organism. John B. Watson is
destruction. It was important we understood people’s
considered the founder of Behaviorism because of
lack of free will - it was all an illusion; the
1
two texts he wrote in the 1920s. He believed that
environment shapes and maintains people’s behavior.
people could be understood solely through their
He advocated engineering a safe society before it was
behavior, not through their mind and emotions.
too late. His book Walden Two (1948) is a fictional
Emotions, he insisted, were “a hereditary pattern of
account of a utopian society based on behavioral
response in which implicit visceral and glandular
engineering. He saw schools as a good way to
responses were predominant” (Keller, 1977). He
condition citizens and he outlined who and what
rejected the idea of instincts completely, ascribing to
should be taught, and the administrative control of
the Pavlov’s principle of conditioning. Watson
students in his book The Technology of Teaching
claimed he could take an infant and through
(1968).
environmental conditioning, produce either a doctor
Because of the work of these behaviorists,
educational settings now use behavioral objectives
or a beggar (Watson, 1919).
For the next 30 years behaviorists continued the
for implementation, measurement, and accountability.
work of Watson by concentrating on more complex
There are three components of behavioral objectives:
behaviors
contiguity,
(1) the conditions or stimuli the schools employ to
intervening variables between a stimulus and a
teach; (2) the expected student behavior; and (3) the
response, and habits and motivations. B. F. Skinner
criteria by which the behavior will be judged.
such
as
the
effects
of
brought Behaviorism to its hiatus of popularity with
A few of the conditions or stimuli being used
his concept of operant conditioning. In operant
now-a-days are programmed instruction, computer
conditioning the behavior is “strengthened by its
based instruction, teaching machines, and contract
consequences and for that reason the consequences
learning. Malcolm Knowles maintains that contract
themselves are called ‘reinforcers’ … one is
learning is the single most potent tool he has come
voluntary and the other involuntary” (Skinner, 1974,
across in more than half of a century. He now uses
pp.39-40). In other words, the behavior itself is
contracts in all of his academic courses (Knowles,
rewarding. Since humans are controlled by their
Holton, Swanson, 2005).
environment, science can study that environment,
For the second component, the student’s
specify that environment, and finally manipulate it.
expected
behavior
is
determined
by
a
Controlling human behavior, he asserts, can result in
competency-based education. The learner’s progress
or accomplishments are compared to a fixed standard
or criterion of mastery rather than compared to other
1
Behavior – An Introduction to Comparative
Psychology (1914) and Psychology from the
Standpoint of a Behaviorist (1919).
students. Hence all students can accomplish the
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COGNITIVE ORIENTATION
objectives if they are given sufficient time and
reinforcement.
Our class text dates the beginning of Cognitive
The third component is the criteria by which
theory back to a publication in 1929 when a Gestalt
the schools will be judged. Elias and Merriam’s in
psychologist criticized behaviorists for being “too
their 1980 book, Philosophical Foundations of Adult
concerned about single events” and “too dependent
Education, say that “performance contracting and
on overt behavior” (Merriam, Caffarella, 1999, p.
educational vouchers are two of the more intriguing
253).2 The Gestalt psychologists suggested looking
ways in which school systems have sought to deal
at the whole, not the parts; seeing the patterns, not the
with
“Performance
isolated events. Perception, insight, and meaning
contracting” sounds a lot like the No Child Left
were necessary to understand people. A person
Behind Act of 2001 and, of course, educational
needed to reorganize incoming stimuli to make sense
voucher would now be the school voucher programs.
of the world. This would sometimes be perceived as
accountability”
(p.91).
In adult learning, the tenets of Behaviorism
flashes of insight.
are manifested in the different starting points as well
In 1966, Jean Piaget proposed a theory of
as the flexibility of time needed to master a task. This
neurology maturation. According to Piaget there are
is particularly important in vocational education
four
where it is important to “identify the skills needed to
correspond to two factors: (1) an individual’s age;
perform in an occupation, teaching those skills, and
and (2) their interaction with the environment.
requiring a certain standard of performance” (Elias,
1980, p.95).
stages
of
cognitive
development
which
David Ausubel and Jerome Bruner emphasized
mental structures and organizational frameworks.
Current Human Resources practices use basic
Ausubel put forward that learning can take place only
elements of behavioral theory. A systems model of
when related knowledge was in a person’s cognitive
training involves the four phases: (1) needs
structure (brain) and he suggested the use of
assessment; (2) design; (3) implementation; and (4)
“advanced organizers” (Ausubel, 1967). His work
evaluation (Bohlander, Snell, 2004, p.235). These
predated the idea of “schemata,” a term referring to
bring to mind the behavioral objectives of such things
learner’s worldview concerning how they process
as contract learning, implementation, accountability,
new experiences. (Merriam, 1999). Bruner talked
and so forth.
about learning through discovery. He sees learning as
Arguments about whether or not behaviorism
three processes transpiring almost simultaneously: (1)
is valid or appropriate seem absurd since its tenets are
acquisition of new knowledge; (2) the translation of
being employed successfully in so many areas of our
that knowledge to new tasks; and (3) the evaluation
society. It is a tool that enhances learning and
of that information for appropriateness (Bruner,
productivity. However, I do not believe it should be
1965).
used as the main orientation in education and the
workplace because it has such potential to be
dehumanizing.
2
Bode, B. H. (1929). Conflicting Psychologies of
Learning. Boston: Heath.
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Gagne’s contributions deal with the concept of
中華民國九十五年九月出版
HUMANIST ORIENTATION
“learning how to learn.” Within this concept it is
The humanist perspective considers the affective
important to consider the learner’s needs, a person’s
as well as the cognitive aspects. Perceptions are
learning style, and training. Gagne and two other
centered in experience and learning is a growth
colleagues, Briggs and Wager (1992) suggest
process. Humanists reject the idea that behavior is
different types of knowledge – signal learning,
predetermined. They assert that people can control
stimulus-response, motor training, verbal association,
their own destiny and maintain that people are
discrimination
inherently good.
learning,
concept
learning,
rule
learning, and problem solving.
Respected philosophers in history have had
Another man of note in Cognitive psychology is
Humanistic ideologies. Confucius talked about the
that of Vygotsky. He emphasized the importance of
potential for people to be either “profound” or
the internal and external aspects of learning and he is
“small”
credited with the concept of the “zone of proximal
“self-cultivation” (A Brief view, 2004). Aristotle
development.” This zone concerns the level of
believed that the goal of all human striving is the
problem a child can cope with independently as
attainment of happiness or supreme good. This, he
opposed to needing help from an adult (Bruning,
felt, was synonymous with happiness. Erasmus, a
Schraw, Norby, Ronning, 1999, p. 197).
critic of the Catholic Church, suggested that virtue is
when
he
explained
his
concept
of
In general, Cognitive psychology is concerned
the most important quality of humans. Humanism is
with aiding understanding and studying mental
also the inherent idea of the Renaissance and
process
Existential thinkers (Elias, 1980).
that
will
assist
learning.
Cognitive
psychology also helps educators to understand
Abraham Maslow is considered the founder of
educational goals. My Cognitive Psychology text
humanistic psychology. He sees the motivation to
book gives seven Cognitive themes for education:
learn as intrinsic – emanating from the learner.
1. Learning is a constructive, not a receptive,
According to Maslow, there is a hierarchy of needs
process
and the only reason a learner does not try and reach
2. Mental frameworks organize memory and
his full potential is because he is dealing with a lower
guide thought
level need such as a physiological need (hunger or
3. Extended practice is needed to develop
thirst), security and protection needs, or possibly
cognitive skills
self-esteem needs. Although self-actualization is the
4. Development
of
self-awareness
and
main goal of learning, Maslow cites other goals such
self-regulation is critical to cognitive growth
as controlling one’s impulses, grappling with
5. Motivation and beliefs are integral to
existential
cognition
appreciating the beauty of life, accomplishments,
6. Social
interaction
is
fundamental
to
issues,
choosing
discriminatively,
peak experiences, morality and values, discovering
cognitive development
one’s destiny, and the realization that life is precious
7. Knowledge, strategies, and expertise are
(1970, p. 439):
contextual (Brunning, 1999, pp. 6-9).
Carl Rogers sees learning as a similar process
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to therapy. Both are educational and both involve a
family, counselors, teachers). By encouragement I do
growth process. He uses the term “client-centered
not mean giving them direction and advice. Although
therapy” which is often equated with student-centered
they may need direction and advice at some point, it
learning. Some of the essential characteristics of
should only be given when asked for. Unsolicited
humanistic learning, according to Rogers, are that it
direction and advice will lead them to a path that is
has personal involvement, it is self-initiated and
not theirs. These counselors and teachers, family and
pervasive, the learner evaluates the experience, and
friends need to “get out of the way” so a student or
the learner incorporates that meaning into a total
client can grapple with their problems, make
experience (1983, p.20).
discoveries for themselves, and find their own unique
Within the humanistic setting the students is
solutions – not someone else’s solution.
the center. The teacher does not necessarily know
Behavioral and the Cognitive psychology are
best, especially when dealing with adult learners. He
intriguing and important disciplines, but I see them as
acts as a facilitator or guide. Responsibility for
tools which aid learning and the understanding of
learning lies with the student. The learners are
people, not as all encompassing philosophies. An all
encouraged to bring all their experiences and
encompassing philosophy would have to be a holistic
uniqueness to the learning situation. The educators
view. Humanism is. Maslow says that looking at the
strive to have students develop intrinsic motivations
world through its parts is a mild form of
for learning, not extrinsic motivations like tests and
psychopathology – a schizophrenic notion: “the
certificates. The humanists believe that the most
cosmos is one and interrelated; any society is one and
important learning takes place for students through
interrelated; any person is one and interrelated, etc.”
discovery in a supportive and socially cooperative
(Maslow, 1970, xi). He suggests the metaphor of a
environment.
hungry person: it is not just his stomach that is
hunger - the whole person is hungry. When an
MY
THEORY
OF
LEARNING
ADULT
individual is motivated, it is the whole individual not
just a part (p. 19).
I most align with the humanist theories. When I
Maslow’s landmark book about humanistic
read the Humanist Orientation section in our book
psychology Motivation of Personality was first
(Merriam, 1999) I thought to myself, “That’s me.” I
published a year after I was born (1954) and the
especially identified with the attitude expressed in a
second revision came out a year before I graduated
quote from that section: “there is a natural tendency
from high school (1970). As I read it for the first time,
for people to learn and that learning will flourish if
I am impressed with the positive message and the
nourishing, encouraging environments are provided”
hope he offers. His motivation theory came about
(Cross, 1981, p. 228).
in1942 in an effort to integrate the truths he found in
about
the works of Freud, Adler, Jung, D.M. Levy, Fromm,
education and counseling. I have faith that most
Horney, and Goldstein (p. xi). I get the sense that this
people can solve their own problems if they have
message and this work is a partial reaction to the
encouragement from significant others (friends,
inhumane atrocities committed and justified by
Carl
Rogers
impacted
my
beliefs
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scientist in World War II. On page three of this text
directly to education. He includes a section on
he writes:
student dissatisfaction. In this section he tells about a
response to a survey where 3,157 students wrote that
It can happen that the pure, objective,
school was a “BORE” (p. 15). He also reported the
disinterested non-humanistic curiosity of the
results of an interview that took place with 200
pure scientist may jeopardize the gratification of
medical students. The message was the same over
other equally important human needs, e.g., safety.
and over again – “students felt they were being
I refer here not only to the obvious atom bomb
lectured to death” (p.15). Rogers gives this
example but also the more general fact that
information as an example of the current state of
science itself implies a value system. After all,
teaching in the 80s. I believe it is still relevant today.
the
Such learning, he says, is “from the neck up” (p.19).
limit
to
which
the
“pure”
scientist
approaches is not an Einstein or a Newton but
He stresses that we need to let the students
the
learn, not dictate the content of what is important.
concentration-camp experiments or the “mad”
The teacher’s job is more difficult than the learners
scientist of Hollywood (p. 3.)
because they must feed the student’s curiosity so they
rather
the
Nazi
“scientist”
of
are inspired to learn.
Maslow refutes the idea that it is only the
Rogers talks about becoming real as a teacher.
scientist who has means to knowledge. He recognizes
To do this, a person must understand the “one
the insights from creative artists, philosophers,
profound question underlying all the surface talk”
writers, poets, dreamers, and even ditch-diggers
(p.33). This is the question all people have and
(Maslow, 1970. p.8).
learning must be connected to this question, must be
Rogers’ beliefs and message also appear to be
in context to their education for true learning to take
a reaction to certain elements in society – the
place. This question is “Who am I?” And it is a
conservatives. He sees the conservative groups as
process, not a static condition.
inhibiting the educational process because of their
fear of change and he sees theses groups as
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