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Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 www.elsevier.com/locate/agee Future scenarios of European agricultural land use I. Estimating changes in crop productivity F. Ewerta,*, M.D.A. Rounsevellb, I. Reginsterb, M.J. Metzgera, R. Leemansc a Department of Plant Sciences, Group Plant Production Systems, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 430, 6700 AK Wageningen, The Netherlands b Department of Geography, Université catholique de Louvain, Place Louis Pasteur, 3, B1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium c Department of Environmental Sciences, Group Environmental Systems Analysis, Wageningen University, P.O. Box 47, NL-6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands Received 6 July 2004; received in revised form 24 November 2004; accepted 2 December 2004 Abstract The future of agricultural land use in Europe is unknown but is likely to be influenced by the productivity of crops. Changes in crop productivity are difficult to predict but can be explored by scenarios that represent alternative economic and environmental pathways of future development. We developed a simple static approach to estimate future changes in the productivity of food crops in Europe (EU15 member countries, Norway and Switzerland) as part of a larger approach of land use change assessment for four scenarios of the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) representing alternative future developments of the world that may be global or regional, economic or environmental. Estimations were performed for wheat (Triticum aestivum) as a reference crop for the time period from 2000 until 2080 with particular emphasis on the time slices 2020, 2050 and 2080. Productivity changes were modelled depending on changes in climatic conditions, atmospheric CO2 concentration and technology development. Regional yield statistics were related to an environmental stratification (EnS) with 84 environmental strata for Europe to estimate productivity changes depending on climate change as projected by the global climate model HadCM3. A simple empirical relationship was used to estimate crop productivity as affected by increasing CO2 concentration simulated by the global environment model IMAGE 2.2. Technology was modelled to affect potential yield and the gap between actual and potential yield. We estimated increases in crop productivity that ranged between 25 and 163% depending on the time slice and scenario compared to the baseline year (2000). The increases were the smallest for the regional environmental scenario and the largest for the global economic scenario. Technology development was identified as the most important driver but relationships that determine technology development remain unclear and deserve further attention. Estimated productivity changes beyond 2020 were consistent with changes in the world-wide demand for food crops projected by IMAGE. However, estimated increases in productivity exceeded expected demand changes in Europe for most scenarios, which is consistent with * Corresponding author. Tel.: +31 317 48 47 71; fax: +31 317 48 48 92. E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Ewert). 0167-8809/$ – see front matter # 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2004.12.003 102 F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 the observed present oversupply in Europe. The developed scenarios enable exploration of future land use changes within the IPCC SRES scenario framework. # 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Keywords: Crop productivity; Modelling; Technology development; Climate change; Increasing CO2; Land use change 1. Introduction Demand for food will further increase in the 21st century (Dyson, 1999; Johnson, 1999; Rosegrant et al., 2001; FAO, 2003b) which can only be met through increases in production area or in the amount of production per unit land area, henceforth ‘‘productivity’’. However, limited available land, expansion of other land use types and environmental sustainability issues restrict further extension of agricultural land in large parts of the world. In fact, agricultural land use in Europe has declined over the last four decades by about 13% (Rounsevell et al., 2003). At the same time crop productivity has increased considerably and food production even exceeded demand for food. Further increases in the productivity of crops are likely to have substantial implications for agricultural land use. Changes in crop productivity depend on different bio-physical and socio-economic factors and are difficult to assess. Process-based, bio-physical models are increasingly used to estimate productivity and food supply under climate change (Rosenzweig and Parry, 1994; Harrison and Butterfield, 1996; Nonhebel, 1996; Brown and Rosenberg, 1997; Downing et al., 1999; Easterling et al., 2001; Parry et al., 2004), but have several limitations. Important yield restricting factors such as pests and diseases, soil salinity and acidity and atmospheric pollution are often not considered and simulations of actual yields remain difficult (Landau et al., 1998; Jamieson et al., 1999; Ewert et al., 2002). Also, advances in technology associated with improved crop management and better varieties via progress in breeding that are largely responsible for the obtained yield increases in the past decades (Evans, 1997; Amthor, 1998; Reynolds et al., 1999) are not accounted for in bio-physical models as quantification of such effects was not an original aim for their development. While only few studies have explicitly evaluated scaling-up procedures for crop models from field to regional scale (Easterling et al., 1998; Olesen et al., 2000), there are many examples in which sitebased models have been applied in regional and larger scale studies on climate change impacts (Easterling et al., 1993; Downing et al., 1999; Parry et al., 1999, 2004; Izaurralde et al., 2003; Reilly et al., 2003; Tan and Shibasaki, 2003). Generally, the state of model validation for regional application of site-based models is unsatisfactory (Ewert et al., 2002; Tubiello and Ewert, 2002) and the confidence in the obtained results is still limited. Another group of models explicitly developed to simulate vegetation growth and dynamics at larger scales such as LPJ (Sitch et al., 2003), CASA (Potter et al., 1993) or IMAGE (IMAGE-team, 2001) makes no specific or only fragmented (IMAGE-team, 2001) reference to agricultural crops. In the absence of a sufficient mechanistic understanding of relationships that determine regional changes in actual yields, statistical models provide an alternative option as they allow relatively simple description of important relationships. However, the applicability of such models outside the range of conditions that were used for their development is limited and prediction of future productivity is not possible. Alternatively, future developments can be explored with scenarios that represent coherent, internally consistent and plausible descriptions of the system under investigation. Importantly, scenario development emphasises joint definition of a problem and synthesis of ideas, rather than extended and deeper analysis of a single viewpoint (Davis, 2002). A suitable concept for the development of alternative scenarios of future crop productivity is provided by the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) (Nakićenović et al., 2000). The unique character of the SRES scenario framework lies in the integrated representation for alternative scenarios of the biophysical and socio-economic dimensions of future development. The four scenario families describe future worlds that may be global economic (A1), global environmental (B1), regional economic (A2) or regional environmental (B2). F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 Predictions of crop productivity world-wide or for selected world regions have been made based on statistical trends (Tweeten, 1998; Dyson, 1999; Johnson, 1999; Rosegrant et al., 2001; FAO, 2003b). However, extrapolation of historic trends was often done for one scenario only without consideration of changes in climatic conditions and CO2 concentration. In fact, alternative scenarios of future productivity that consider combined changes in bio-physical factors and technology development and which are consistent with the SRES storylines to allow scenario-based analyses of land use change are not yet available. The aim of the present study was the development of alternative scenarios for future changes in crop productivity in Europe. The scenarios follow the SRES storylines A1FI (i.e. the fossil fuel intensive scenario within the A1 scenario family), A2, B1 and B2. Productivity changes were calculated for the time period from 2000 (baseline year) until 2080 with an emphasis on the years 2020, 2050 and 2080. The scenarios were developed as an integrated part of a larger framework aiming at the construction of quantitative regional scenarios of agricultural land use change in Europe (Rounsevell et al., 2005). This work contributes to the integration of knowledge about biophysical and socio-economic processes that determine changes in crop productivity. It intends to provide information in support of investigations about future land use in Europe and related consequences for multifunctional agriculture and sustainable food production. In order to avoid complicated representation of a complex system, it was important to develop an approach that is simple and transparent but still captures important relationships and drivers of productivity change. 2. Methods 2.1. Analysis of historic yield trends The analysis of historic yield trends for major European crops was based on data provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2003a). Crop yields were considered from 1961 until 2002 of the 15 EU-member countries (EU15)1 plus Norway 1 The EU had 15 member countries at the time the present study was performed. 103 and Switzerland. Yield trends were calculated by fitting linear regression lines through the observed data. For most crops and countries, historic increases in crop yields were best described by single regression line for the time period considered which had the form: Ye ¼ fY ty þ b (1) where Ye is the estimated yield at a particular year ty. The annual rate of yield change is represented by fY, and b is an empirical parameter. Definitions of parameters are summarised in Table 1. Changes in yield trends in Europe, i.e. higher annual rates of yield increase, were observed at about 1960 (Evans, 1997; Calderini and Slafer, 1998), and have been almost stable since this time. Importantly, relative changes in estimated yields declined as yields increased (see Section 2.2.2) and were calculated from Yr ¼ Ye ðty Þ Ye ðty 1Þ (2) where Yr represents the relative yield change between years calculated from the fitted regression lines through observed yields. 2.2. Modelling future changes in primary productivity 2.2.1. Supply–demand model The developed model for estimating productivity changes is part of a larger modelling approach that aimed to estimate future changes in agricultural land use in Europe (Rounsevell et al., 2005). The model is based on simple supply/demand relationships and is described in more detail elsewhere (Rounsevell et al., 2005). Briefly, it is assumed that changes in agricultural land use (L) at any time in the future (t) compared to the present baseline (t0) are determined by changes in demand (D), productivity (P) and oversupply (O): Lt Dt Pt0 Or;t ¼ Lt0 Dt0 Pt Or;t0 (3) Changes in productivity were modelled in more detail accounting for effects on crop productivity of climate change, increasing CO2 concentration and technology development that are known as the most important drivers of productivity change. Importantly, it was assumed that the effects of these factors on crop 104 F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 Table 1 Definition of symbols and parameter values (see text for further explanation) Symbol Unit Definition b C D fCO,r fT;Gr t ha1 ppm t ppm1 – fT;Pr fy L n Or P Pt,CO Pt,Cl Pt,T t t0 ts ty Ye Yr Yr,a YGi – t ha1 year1 ha – – t t t t years years years years t ha1 – – t ha1 Empirical parameter Atmospheric CO2 concentration Demand for food crops Relative CO2 effect on yield (0.08 ppm1) Factor that represents actual yield as a relative fraction of potential yield which changes due to technology development Factor that accounts for changes in potential yield gains due to technology development Rate of yield change Area of agricultural land use Number of grid cells (18508) Relative oversupply Productivity Future productivity as affected by increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration Future productivity as affected by climate change Future productivity as affected by technology development Year of estimation Baseline year Scenario time period Year of estimated yield Estimated yield Relative yield change Annual increment in the relative yield change with reference to the baseline year Average yield in a 10 ft 10 ft grid cell productivity were additive. Interactions between these factors have been reported, e.g. CO2 effects are likely to change with temperature increase (Long, 1991; Morison and Lawlor, 1999), water or nitrogen availability (Kimball et al., 2002). However, experimental evidence from which to derive relationships for different regions and management practices is limited (Ewert et al., 2002; Tubiello and Ewert, 2002) and there is no evidence about the significance of such interactions at larger spatial scales such as regions, countries or even globally. Thus, changes in productivity were calculated from: Pt0 1 ¼ 1 þ ððP =P 1Þ þ ðPt;CO =Pt0 1Þ Pt t0 t;Cl þðPt;T =Pt0 1ÞÞ (4) where Pt,Cl, Pt,CO and Pt,T represent future productivity as affected by climate change, increasing CO2 concentrations and technology development, respectively. 2.2.2. Effects of technology development Yields of major European crops have steadily increased since the 1960s (Table 2) which has largely been due to technology development. The term technology development as used in this study refers to all measures related to crop management (e.g. improved machinery, pesticides and herbicides, etc., and agronomic knowledge of farmers) and breeding (development of higher yielding varieties through improved stress resistance and/or yield potential) that result in yield increase. Higher yields were achieved both through increasing potential yield and reducing the gap between potential and actual yields, further referred to as the ‘‘yield gap’’. While increase in potential yield is achieved through breeding (e.g. via improved light capturing or light conversion efficiency into biomass), decrease in the yield gap may be realised via improved crop management practices or breeding (e.g. via improved resistance to biotic or abiotic stresses). Increasing demand for food and competitive pressure posed by other land use types (e.g. urban land use) are likely to require further productivity raises that can only be achieved via advances in technology (Austin, 1999; Evans and Fischer, 1999; Johnson, 1999; Reynolds et al., 1999; Borlaug, 2000). Technology effects on future productivity were modelled based on historic yield trends. However, F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 105 Table 2 Land use and selected yield statistics for major European crops Crop Harvested area Yield average (t ha1) Rate of yield changea (t ha1 year1) Relative yield changeb (%) ha (106) % of arable area 1961–1970 1991–2000 Cereals (all) Wheat Barley Oats Rye Triticale Maize Potatoes Sugar beets Rapeseed Sunflower 37.8 18 10.7 1.9 1.2 1.0 4.2 1.3 1.9 3.0 1.9 51 24 15 3 2 1 6 2 3 4 3 Sum/average 45.9 53 2.6 2.4 2.9 2.37 n.a. n.a. 3.19 19.65 36.53 1.92 1.17 – 5.27 5.54 4.29 3.28 4.17 4.87 8.32 32.64 55.31 2.88 1.54 – 0.88 1.02 0.47 0.29 0.96c 1.45d 1.69 4.4 6.43 0.34 0.18 1.6 1.74 1.06 0.84 2.05 2.56 1.89 1.34 1.1 1.1 0.9 – 1.51e Scientific names of selected crops are Triticum aestivum (wheat), Hordeum vulgare (barley), Avena sativa (oats), Secale cereale (rye), X Triticosecale (triticale), Zea mays (maize), Solanum tuberosum (potatoes), Beta vulgaris (sugar beets), Brassica napus (rapeseed), Helianthus annuus (sunflower). n.a.: not available. a Calculated from measured yields between 1961 and 2002. b Calculated from estimated yields for 1999 and 2000 (see Eqs. (1) and (2)). c Based on available data from 1979 to 2002. d Based on available data from 1986 to 2002. e Value refers to area weighted average. analysis of data indicated that observed yield increases varied substantially between crops and countries (Table 2, Figs. 1a and 2a) and consideration of the diversity of trends in a modelling approach would require a large number of parameters, which would limit further application in a simple land use change model (Rounsevell et al., 2005). Analysis of the obtained data revealed that differences in relative yield changes among crops and countries were surprisingly small and tended to converge with time (Figs. 1b and 2b). Thus, the future change in productivity (Pt,T/Pt0 ) was calculated from the relative yield change at t0, i.e. the yield change calculated from the fitted regression line equation (2) at the end of the observation period (1999–2000), and a factor for future yield increase that was corrected for the effects of technology on potential yield and the yield gap: Pt;T ¼ Yr ðt0 Þ þ Pt0 t¼t Z s ðYr;a fT;Pr ðtÞ fT;Gr ðtÞ dt 0:8 (5) t0 in which Yr is the relative yield change at t0, further referred to as the baseline year, that is calculated from Eq. (2) as Ye(2000)/Ye(1999). The term Yr,a represents the yearly increment in the relative yield change with Fig. 1. Observed (FAO, 2003a) (a) yields and (b) relative yield changes (i.e. Yr, calculated from Eq. (2)) for selected crops in Europe (EU 15 + 2). 106 F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 gap components of the relative yield change, respectively. Historic gains in potential yield were set to 1 and fT;Pr accounts for any future diversion from this gain. It was further assumed that present actual crop yields in Europe are about 80% of potential yields (Oerke and Dehne, 1997) and the parameter fT;Gr represents the actual yield as a relative fraction of potential yield in the future. Fig. 2. Observed (FAO, 2003a) (a) grain yields and (b) relative yield changes (i.e. Yr, calculated from Eq. (2)) of wheat for selected countries in Europe. reference to the baseline year t0 and is calculated from (Yr(t0) 1). Thus, the historic yield trends were simply progressed into the future. For instance, if the relative yield change Yr(t0) in the baseline year is 1.016 as calculated for cereals (Table 2) the annual increment Yr,a is 0.016 and over a time-period of 20 years, future productivity would be 1.336 times the productivity in the baseline year. The developed approach to base productivity estimations on relative rather than on absolute yield changes has the advantage that yield changes can be compared and averaged across crops and countries to avoid unnecessary complexity. In fact, as already stated above, differences in relative yield changes were small among crops and countries in Europe with the tendency to further merge in the future. Thus, one value for Yr was calculated for estimating productivity changes in the present study (see parameterisation in Section 3.2). However, technology development may affect this trend and the terms fT;Pr and fT;Gr were introduced to account for changes in the potential yield and yield 2.2.3. Effects of increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration Effects of climate change and increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration on crops have been reported several times and are considered in crop productivity models (Rosenzweig and Parry, 1994; Downing et al., 1999; van Oijen and Ewert, 1999; Fischer et al., 2002; Tubiello and Ewert, 2002). However, process-based models have mainly been used to estimate climate and CO2 effects on potential yield (Amthor and Loomis, 1996; Boote et al., 1997; Tubiello and Ewert, 2002) and more recently also for water (Ewert et al., 2002; Asseng et al., 2004) and nitrogen (Jamieson et al., 2000) limited conditions. Understanding of the combined effects of climate and CO2 concentration on crop growth and yield is still limited (Ewert, 2004) and application of the present generation of crop models to estimate actual yields for regional and larger scales is critical (Ewert et al., 2002; Tubiello and Ewert, 2002). Given the relative insignificance of increasing CO2 concentration to crop yield (Amthor, 1998), the application of simplified statistical approaches appeared justified. Hence, the effect of raising CO2 on crop yield was calculated from: Pt;CO fCO;r DCtt0 þ1 ¼ Pt 0 100 (6) where fCO,r is the relative yield change per unit increase in CO2 and DCtt0 the difference between future and present CO2 concentration. 2.2.4. Effects of climate change Calculation of climate effects was based on a recently developed environmental stratification (EnS) for Europe (Metzger et al., 2003, 2004). Europe was divided into 84 environmental strata (13 environmental zones) based on statistical clustering of mainly climatic factors (Metzger et al., 2003, 2004; Fig. 3). F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 107 Fig. 3. Application of an environmental stratification (Metzger et al., 2003), to estimate changes in wheat yields for the scenario A1FI (global economic and fossil fuel intensive world) of the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović et al., 2000). Environmental zones and related changes in wheat yields are shown for 2000 and 2080. For presentation reasons the 84 environmental strata were aggregated into 13 environmental zones (Metzger et al., 2003). Distribution of wheat for 2000 was based on data provided by Eurostat (2000). The strata showed strong correlations with agronomic variables (e.g. growing season length, soil variables) and datasets for potential natural vegetation and species distribution (Metzger et al., 2004). Available NUTS2 (Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics with 329 NUTS2 regions in Europe) regional yield statistics (Eurostat, 2000) were related to the specific strata (Fig. 3) assuming that variability in climatic conditions among regions in Europe and associated effects on yields are sufficiently well represented by these strata. Changes in climatic conditions projected by the global climate model HadCM3 for 2020, 2050 and 2080 (Mitchell et al., 2004) were used to calculate changes in the distribution of EnS strata for each scenario and time slice. Since yields were related to individual strata, changes in the distribution of strata resulted in changes in the distribution yields. The new yield distribution was overlain on the baseline yields (Fig. 3). For each geographical location, i.e. a 10 ft 10 ft grid cell (Rounsevell et al., 2005) the ratio between future and baseline yields was calculated and averaged across the study area of EU 15 + 2. The derived values were used as an indication of the climate change induced effect on crop productivity. Thus, the change in productivity as affected by climate change was calculated from: Pt;C ¼ Pt0 n Y X Gi ðtÞ Y G i ðt0 Þ i¼1 n (7) where YGi is the actual yield of the grid cell i at present and future times which was averaged over all grid cells, n, across the study area of EU 15 + 2. 108 F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 3. Parameterisation 3.1. Historic yield trends and baseline yield increase It is unclear to what extent the steady increases in yields of major European crops since the Green Revolution (Table 2) can be sustained into the future. There is some evidence that yields have approached a ceiling for a number of countries in recent years (Calderini and Slafer, 1998). Further increase in potential yield appears difficult with present agronomic and breeding practices (Cassman, 1999). Also, crops in developed countries have approached about 80% of potential yields (Oerke and Dehne, 1997), which leaves little room for increases in actual yields through improved agronomic practices and varieties. However, there is justifiable optimism for potential yield to further increase in the future and meet the growing demand for food (Austin, 1999; Evans and Fischer, 1999; Reynolds et al., 1999), but to achieve this, advances in agronomic and breeding techniques will be required (Evans and Fischer, 1999). Progressing present yield increases into the future will apparently provide sufficiently high yields to meet future demands (Johnson, 1999). Thus, present yield trends were considered to be the possible maximum for future increases in productivity related to technology development. Analysis of available yield statistics for most important crops in Europe indicated that the estimated annual relative yield change was on average 1.45% for EU 15 in 2000 (Table 2). Changes were more pronounced for cereals such as wheat (Triticum aestivum) (1.74%) and maize (Zea mays) (1.89%) than for root crops such as potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) (1.34%) and sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) (1.1%). Considering the importance of individual crops in terms of growing area, the area-weighted average was 1.51% (Table 2). Since wheat is by far the most important food crop in Europe it was considered as the reference crop and the relative yield change of 1.75% (i.e. Yr = 1.0175 in Eq. (5)) in 2000 as the theoretical maximum for future increases in productivity (Table 2). approach. Again, this was not an attempt to provide a single and true prediction, but a range of alternative possibilities for productivity changes. Thus, parameters had to reflect the future SRES worlds that could be economic or environmental, global or regional. Consequently, the scenario-specific parameters might divert from the ‘‘real’’ development which, however, should still fall within the range of possibilities marked by the alternative scenarios. Selected characteristics of the main SRES scenario families that are likely to determine agricultural-technology development in the future are summarized in Fig. 4. Technology development was assumed to affect potential yield and yield gap. Genetic gains in potential yield have been almost 1% for irrigated wheat (Reynolds et al., 1999) and improvement in genetic yield potential is an important contributor to yield increase in the future (Austin, 1999; Evans and Fischer, 1999; Reynolds et al., 1999). With the introduction of the parameter fT;Pr (Eq. (5)) we calculated any diversion from the historic gains in potential yield which was set to 1. It was assumed that gains in potential yield will gradually decrease depending on the scenario to between 70 (A1FI) and 0% (B2) by 2080 compared to 2000 (Table 3). There is evidence to suggest that the present rate of yield increases can be maintained for another decade with varieties currently tested in field trials (Austin, 1999). In the global economic scenario (A1FI) emphasis is on technology development to meet the increasing world food demand (Fig. 4). Optimism related to possible advances in biotechnology suggests Table 3 Values of parameters that represent the effect of technology on potential yield (fT;Pr ) and yield gap (fT;Gr ) for different scenarios of the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović et al., 2000) and time slices Parameter Scenario A1FIa A2b B1c B2d fT;Pr 2020 2050 2080 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.2 0 0 fT;Gr 2020 2050 2080 0.85 0.9 0.95 0.85 0.9 0.95 0.85 0.9 0.95 0.6 0.6 0.6 3.2. Technology development a Effects on productivity of technology development, climate change and increasing CO2 concentration were estimated following the IPCC SRES scenario Year b c d Global economic and fossil fuel intensive world. Regional economic world. Global environmental world. Regional environmental world. F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 109 Fig. 4. Derived characteristics of the four main scenario families of the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović et al., 2000) with important implications for agricultural-technology development in the future. Characteristics for A1 apply also to the fossil fuel intensive scenario A1FI that is considered in this study. that further progress in potential yield is possible (Evans, 1997; Reynolds et al., 1999; Borlaug, 2000; Miflin, 2000). However, it is considered that yields will gradually approach a biological limit and rates of yield increase decline even for the global economic scenario. In contrast, yield increases in the regional environmental scenarios were assumed to progress at a small rate and approach zero by 2050 (Table 3). Food demand in EU 15 + 2 is already met and future increase in food demand is relatively small. Also, emphasis on environmental issues restricts the application of biotechnology for breeding. Since it was assumed that increases in yield potential will decline, there is more scope for technology development to further reduce the yield gap from present 20% (Oerke and Dehne, 1997; Austin, 1999) to 5% by 2080 for the scenarios A1FI, A2 and B2 (Table 3). However, it was assumed that the yield gap will increase in the B2 scenario, which is due to a higher proportion of organic farming, reduction of the use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides (Table 3). 3.3. Climate change and increasing CO2 Productivity changes due to climate change were calculated based on yield statistics of wheat (Eurostat, 2000) and from projections of the future climate based on HadCM3 for Europe with a spatial resolution of 10 ft 10 ft grid cells (Mitchell et al., 2004). The distributions of wheat yields for 2000 and for the A1FI scenario in 2080 are presented in Fig. 3. Clearly, as environmental strata were projected to shift (mainly in south–north direction, Fig. 3) related yields also shifted accordingly (Fig. 3). This resulted in higher yields compared to the baseline in the north of Europe, particularly in south Sweden and Finland. On the other hand, yields decreased in the south of Europe, mainly in Spain and Portugal and to some extend in France and Italy (Fig. 3). Only small effects of climate change were estimated for central and western Europe. However, calculated average yield changes across EU 15 + 2 were small as yield gains and losses largely averaged out and ranged between 1 and 3%. Table 4 Projected (IMAGE-team, 2001) increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations (ppm) for different scenarios of the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović et al., 2000) and time slices Year Scenario 2020 2050 2080 a b c d A1FIa A2b B1c B2d 427 572 766 424 537 709 417 484 518 421 506 567 Global economic and fossil fuel intensive world. Regional economic world. Global environmental world. Regional environmental world. 110 F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 The calculation of the CO2 effect on productivity was based on estimations of future CO2 concentration from the IMAGE model (IMAGE-team, 2001; Table 4). The relative yield change per unit increase in CO2 concentration was set to 0.08% ppm1 suggesting that doubling present CO2 concentration would increase crop yields by about 30% (Ewert et al., 1999; van Oijen and Ewert, 1999; Amthor, 2001). regional environmental scenario (B2) with 25, 37 and 43% increase in productivity for 2020, 2050 and 2080, respectively. The largest increases were calculated for the global economic scenario (A1FI) with 41, 101 and 163% for 2020, 2050 and 2080, respectively. Differences among scenarios were relatively small 4. Results The developed approach enabled calculation of future productivity changes for crops across Europe. The presented estimations (Table 5) of the effects on productivity of changes in climatic conditions, CO2 concentration and technology development refer to wheat as a reference crop. Differences in relative yield changes among crops were relatively small and are not further emphasized in this study (see Section 5.4). The estimations suggest increases in crop productivity ranging from 25 to 163% depending on time slice and scenario compared to the baseline year of 2000 (Table 5). The increases were the smallest for the Table 5 Estimated relative changes in crop productivity as affected by changes in climatic conditions, CO2 concentration and technology development for different scenarios of the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović et al., 2000) and time slices (estimations refer to wheat) Factor Year Scenario A1FIa A2b B1c B2d Climate 2020 2050 2080 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.97 0.98 1.01 1 1 1 0.99 1 CO2 2020 2050 2080 1.04 1.16 1.32 1.04 1.13 1.27 1.03 1.09 1.12 1.04 1.11 1.15 Technology 2020 2050 2080 1.37 1.87 2.34 1.37 1.81 2.17 1.30 1.63 1.87 1.20 1.28 1.28 2020 2050 2080 1.41 2.01 2.63 1.40 1.92 2.42 1.34 1.72 1.98 1.25 1.37 1.43 All factors a b c d Global economic and fossil fuel intensive world. Regional economic world. Global environmental world. Regional environmental world. Fig. 5. Observed (FAO, 2003a) and estimated grain yields of wheat in Europe (EU 15 + 2) over time for different scenarios of the IPCC Special Report on Emission Scenarios (Nakićenović et al., 2000). Yields were calculated depending on (a) climate change, increasing CO2 concentration and technology development and (b) technology development alone. Relative yield changes derived from estimated yields in (b) are presented in (c). Scenarios represent alternative developments that are A1FI, global economic and fossil fuel intensive; A2, regional economic; B1, global environmental; B2, regional environmental. F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 in 2020, but increased with time indicating higher uncertainties for productivity change estimates at more distant futures. Importantly, changes in productivity were mostly due to the effects of technology development, particularly in the global and economic scenarios A1FI, B1 and A2 (Table 5). In contrast, the effects of climate change were relatively small, although calculated yield responses to climate change were more significant in northern and particularly southern Europe and even exceeded estimated technology effects. However, these responses averaged out at the European scale. The importance of technological change is consistent with historical data and largely due to the assumptions about future advances in technology development. Calculation of future wheat yields from estimated relative productivity changes suggested that yields will increase from about 6 t ha1 for the baseline to between 8 and 15 t ha1 for the B2 and A1FI scenario, respectively, in 2080 (Fig. 5a). Technology effects alone were estimated to increase wheat yields within the next 80 years to between 7 and 13 t ha1 depending on the scenario (Fig. 5b). Accordingly, relative yield change declined from about 1.75% in 2000 to 1.13, 0.9 and 0.68% in 2020, 2050 and 2080, respectively, in the A1FI scenario (Fig. 5c). Annual rates of yield change were smaller in the other scenarios and gradually declined to 0% in 2050 for the B2 scenario. 5. Discussion 5.1. Scope for future changes in crop productivity In the present study we aimed to develop scenarios of future crop productivity depending on alternative assumptions about socio-economic and environmental developments following the concept of the IPCC SRES framework. Importantly, we neither attempted to provide predictions of crop productivity nor did we have any preferences of a particular future development. Our estimations suggest that increases in the productivity of food crops were particularly high in the economic scenarios (A1FI) which closely followed the extrapolated trend line derived from historic data (1961–2000) (Fig. 5). The potential for further 111 increases in crop yields at rates that have been achieved in the past has been extensively discussed in the literature. Some reports suggest that yields are approaching a ceiling (Calderini and Slafer, 1998) while others found little sign of a slowing down in yield trends for most countries (Hafner, 2003). Without doubt, yields will not increase infinitely and we have considered a gradual diversion from the extrapolated historic trend line as time progresses into the future (Fig. 5b). However, as indicated by physiologists and breeders, there is still scope for further improvement in potential yields and in the reduction of the yield gap (Evans, 1997; Austin, 1999; Reynolds et al., 1999). Potential yield may continue to increase via improved light capturing and light and nitrogen use efficiency (Loomis and Amthor, 1999; Borlaug, 2000). Continuing progress in agronomy including pest, disease and weed management are likely to further close the gap between actual and potential yield. The application and development of new breeding methodologies related to biotechnology may result in yield gains from improved tolerance by plants of toxicity and abiotic extremes and resistances against pests and diseases (Borlaug, 2000; Miflin, 2000). In contrast, estimated productivity increases were smaller for the environmental scenarios, particularly for the regional scenario B2. In the environmental scenarios emphasis is on sustainability, environmental protection and product quality, which are known to correlate negatively with productivity. However, the growing demand for food as projected for the B2 scenario (IMAGE-team, 2001) will require some further productivity increase. According to our interpretations of the SRES storylines it is unlikely that future technology will decline and that yields will fall below present levels. Thus, the confidence is reasonably high that future yields will be within the productivity range marked by our scenarios. A more precise estimation of future productivity remains difficult and requires better understanding of drivers and underlying mechanisms. 5.2. Comparison between estimated productivity changes and demand for food Relationships between crop productivity and food demand become particularly important when expan- 112 F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 sion of agricultural land is restricted. It has been calculated that in order to meet future demands, cereal yields in developed countries will have to increase by 32% in 2020 compared to 2000 which will require an annual yield increase of 1.1% (Rosegrant et al., 2001). The Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO, 2003b) predicts that crop production until 2030 will have to grow with an annual rate of 1.4% per year world-wide and 0.9% per year in industrial countries. Although annual increases in food demand will decline in the future an increase in productivity of about 0.8% world-wide will be required to meet the expected demand in 2050 (Tweeten, 1998). Assuming that agricultural land use is likely to further decline, particularly in developed countries due to growth in urban areas and other land uses, the required productivity changes are likely to be higher. The above predictions from the literature fall within the range of our estimated relative productivity changes (Fig. 6). Importantly, future changes in demand depend on assumptions about demographic and economic developments and differ among world regions (IMAGEteam, 2001). Annual changes in food demand will be higher world-wide than in Europe (Fig. 6). Our estimated yield increases were more pronounced than the changes in demand for Europe, particularly for the near future for most (except regional environmental) scenarios (Fig. 6). This is consistent with historic data where yield increases in Europe were higher than changes in demand with the result that food supply exceeded demand for food. In contrast, our estimated yield increases coincided well with changes in world food demand projected for the next few decades (Fig. 6). However, relationships between regional production and regional and global food demand are complex and are difficult to model. Overproduction and import/export relationships with other world regions need to be taken into consideration when estimating regional changes in crop productivity from food demand. 5.3. Relative importance of drivers of productivity change The productivity of crops is determined by a set of yield defining (e.g. climate, atmospheric CO2 concentration and crop characteristics), limiting (e.g. Fig. 6. Relative changes in the demand for food crops over time for (a) OECD Europe and (b) the world. Changes were calculated from projected demands by the global environment model IMAGE 2.2 (IMAGE-team, 2001). To enable better comparison, estimated relative yield changes from Fig. 5c were superimposed onto the graphs. For scenarios description see Fig. 5 or text. water and nitrogen supply) and restricting (e.g. pest and diseases) factors (Goudriaan and Zadoks, 1995; van Ittersum et al., 2003). Based on this, we assumed that productivity will change depending on climate change, increasing CO2 concentration and technology development. Importantly, technology was the most important driver of productivity change outweighing the effects of climate change and increasing CO2. The effects of CO2 and climate change on crop productivity were estimated based on relatively simple statistical approaches. This is in contrast to the increasing use of dynamic, process-based models in global change impact assessment studies. However, as recently indicated, CO2 effects on crop yields in the past have been relatively insignificant (Amthor, 1998), which questions the need to consider detailed mechanisms for estimating yield trends at regional F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 and larger scales. In fact, as can be calculated from Eq. (6), the CO2 effect between 1961 and 2000 was as much as 4%, i.e. 0.12% yield increase per year which is less than 5% of the total yield increase over this period. If we consider that our assumption about the CO2 effect refers to C3 crops and was based on controlled or semi-controlled environment studies and that CO2 effects might be smaller in the field and are less pronounced for C4 crops, the contribution of increasing CO2 to historic yield changes was even smaller. Estimations of climate change effects were even less pronounced than for CO2 and only for the economic scenarios a small decrease in productivity was calculated for Europe (Table 5). More pronounced negative effects of climate change on crop productivity in Europe were simulated by process-based crop models (Downing et al., 1999) but combined effects of climate change and elevated CO2 were still positive for large parts of Europe (Downing et al., 1999), as was also a result of the present study. However, recent investigations suggest, that climate change effects on productivity have been underestimated (Lobell and Asner, 2003) in the past. Clearly, investigations are required to further analyse the effects of past climate changes on crop productivity in Europe and to further evaluate the present approach to estimate climate change effects on actual yields. 5.4. Variability in productivity changes across crops and regions Our estimations of crop productivity refer to the aggregated European level. This is consistent with the approach used in an accompanied study to first calculate land use changes for Europe and then allocate these changes to individual regions according to scenario-specific rules (Rounsevell et al., 2005). Consideration of regional differences would require additional information that is difficult to obtain in consistent detail across all regions in Europe (e.g. management practices). It would also complicate the present model which was intended to be simple and transparent. However, there were differences among regions with respect to the estimated climate change effects. Projected changes in climatic conditions will cause severe yield reductions in southern Europe, but will 113 result in yield gains in northern Europe as growing season length extends and zones of suitability for production expand northwards. This is also evident from other studies (Harrison and Butterfield, 1996; Nonhebel, 1996; Downing et al., 1999). Future technology development and impacts on productivity may also differ among regions as was observed for historic changes in absolute yields (Fig. 2a). However, our analysis was based on relative yield changes and not on absolute changes, and revealed only small differences among regions. For instance, absolute yield increase in France (0.12 t ha1 year1, Fig. 2a) was about three times the increase obtained in Spain (0.043 t ha1 year1, Fig. 2a) but relative yield changes were almost similar for both countries (i.e. about 1.7%, Fig. 2b). Thus, consideration of one parameter for different regions based on relative yield changes appears a fair approximation. The same applies to the crops analysed in this study. Annual yield increases for potatoes were on average across Europe about four times higher than increases for wheat (Table 2). Again, differences in relative yield changes were comparably small (Table 2). However, instead of using an area-weighted European average for important crops, we considered wheat as a reference crop. Wheat is the most important crop in Europe and much of the future work on crop improvement will be on wheat. Thus, it is likely that wheat marks the upper boundary of possible productivity increases in the future which should not fall outside the ranges of productivity changes described by our scenarios. 6. Conclusions We have developed an approach to estimate the productivity of food crops in Europe for different scenarios of the IPCC SRES framework from 2000 until 2080. The approach is simple and can easily be applied, if parameterised appropriately, for other regions. The importance of advances in technology for future productivity as evident from our results draws particular attention to relationships that determine technology development. Our assumptions about technology effects on potential yield and yield gap were based on qualitative judgments and there is a 114 F. Ewert et al. / Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 107 (2005) 101–116 clear scope for model improvement. Consideration of dynamic feedback mechanisms between crop productivity and demand for food, agricultural land use and socio-economic conditions are likely to provide further insights into the complex relationships determining productivity change. Our results indicate substantial increases in productivity, particularly for a global economic world, that are likely to result in further abandonment of agricultural land in Europe as observed during the past decades. Changes of agricultural land use and emerging options for alternative land uses may have far reaching implications for the development of future food production systems. 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