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The Effectiveness of Female Nudity in Advertising in Three
European countries
Abstract
Purpose - We attempt to gain a better understanding of the interest for an advertiser to use
nudity in European advertising campaigns, and more precisely if the use of nudity in a print
ad is more or less efficient than an ad without nudity in Czech Republic, Spain, and France.
Design/methodology/approach - An experiment carried out in three European countries
(Czech Republic, Spain, France), exposes young consumers to a magazine containing an
advertisement with a woman showing either her face or her topless body.
Findings - The results show that nationality does not appear to have an influence on the
preference for advertisements with or without nudity. Though differences have been observed
between the three countries concerning Attitude toward the Ad (Aad), they are independent of
the ad type and always present the same trends in each country. On the other hand gender
influences Aad, and women adopt more negative Aad with nudity ad versus without nudity
than do men, regardless of the country.
Research limitations/implications - Attitudes toward advertising in general vary
significantly among European countries, even for a seemingly homogeneous target that most
probably requires some specific adaptations not about the issue of nudity but more generally
about the content of the ad.
Practical implications - Advertisers that question the relevance of nudity in their advertising
campaigns therefore should take greater care in defining their target market in terms of gender
than with regard to the European country in which the advertising will appear.
Originality/value - This paper confirms the finding that women adopt more negative attitudes
toward advertisements that use sexy female models than do men, and add that the effect is
independent of nationality in a European context.
Keywords - Nudity, advertising, print media, Czech Republic, France, Spain, attitude toward
advertising
Paper type - Research paper
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Introduction
Although the use of the eroticism in advertising is not a recent phenomenon (Soley and
Kurzbard, 1986), it appears to have increased in recent years. Reichert, LaTour, and Kim
(2007, p. 63) observe that “the proportion of sexualised women rose from less than one-third
in 1964 to one-half in 2003,” a period in which, according to Kilbourne (2005, p. 119),
“graphic sexual images seem more extreme, more pervasive and more perverse than before”.
Consumers appear increasingly tolerant of this form of communication. For example,
Zimmerman and Dahlberg (2008) show that American women are less offended by
advertisements with sexual connotations than were those questioned a few years previously
by Ford, LaTour, and Lundstrom (1991).
These tendencies also exist in other areas of the world, though apparently on different
levels. Nelson and Paek (2005) observe advertisements published in seven editions of the
women’s magazine Cosmopolitan and find significant differences between advertisements in
France and Thailand, which contain a great deal of sexual content, and the United States,
Brazil, Korea, and China, for which the advertisements contain less sexual content.
These differences may reflect different attitudes among consumers of each country toward
advertising with sexual stimuli. However, despite interest in and some understanding of these
mechanisms, few studies provide cross-cultural comparisons, particularly in Europe (e.g.,
Lass and Hart, 2004; Orth, Koenig, and Firbasova, 2007).Yet according to de Mooij (2003, p.
198), “the persistence of cultural variety of countries worldwide as well as in Europe implies
that a successful advertising approach in one country does not automatically mean similar
success in other countries.”
On another side, it would seem that overall and in spite of notable variations
between the countries and the categories of product, the international brands
tend to resort rather to standardized strategies (Nelson and Paek, 2007), thus
increases the research interest on this subject from the academic or
professional point of view (Fastoso and Whitelock, 2007).
D’un autre côté, il semblerait que globalement et malgré des variations notables selon
les pays et les catégories de produit, les marques internationales aient tendance à recourir
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plutôt à des stratégies standardisées (Nelson and Paek, 2007), accroissant ainsi l’intérêt des
recherches sur ce sujet que ce soit du point de vue académique ou professionnel (Fastoso and
Whitelock, 2007).
In this spirit, we attempt to gain a better understanding of the effects of recourses to
nudity in European advertising campaigns through an experiment carried out in three
European countries: a former Soviet bloc member (the Czech Republic), a Western country
considered tolerant with regard to this form of communication (France), and a southern
country which recently refused a sexy advertisement (see Dolce & Gabbana example)
tolerated in many other countries (Spain). After reviewing literature and the principal research
results, we address the European context into account and present our research hypotheses.
We then describe the study methodology and the results, highlighting how these results might
assist an advertiser that plans to use such forms of communication.
Literature review and research question
An advertisement might contain different degrees of dress of the models, which Reichert and
Ramirez (2000) argue is the characteristic most likely to give a sexy connotation to an
advertisement. Although the degree of dress is not always a necessary or sufficient condition
to imply a sexual stimulus, it remains the most obvious marker, because nudity makes the
sexual connotation more explicit. In particular, Reichert and Ramirez (2000) show that more
than 50% of their respondents make a close link between eroticism and nudity.
Impact of nudity on attention, memory, and attitude toward the ad
According to MacInnis, Moorman, and Jaworski (1991), when consumers’ motivation to
process data about the brand is weak, the advertiser must draw attention to an advertisement
by providing executional cues to which the consumer will be sensitive, independent of the
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brand. Among such cues, sexual sources function well in drawing attention. Various
researchers (De Pelsmacker and Geuens, 1998; Lombardot, 2007; Manceau and TissierDesbordes, 2006; Vezina and Paul 1997) confirm increased attention due to the positive effect
of nudity.
By attracting attention, the advertiser can “increase brand information processing
within the ad” (MacInnis, Moorman, and Jaworski, 1991). However, this bond between
attention and treatment cannot be observed empirically for sexual sources. Lombardot (2007),
reviewing literature from 23 research sources (essentially American experiments), shows that
nudity affects cognitive processes, comprehension of the message, and brand memory
negatively, in that “paradoxically, this should lead to increased memory for sexual advertising
for those (American) individuals for whom the use of sexual appeal is least appealing”
(Davies, Zhu, and Brantley, 2007, p. 88).
Regarding the impact of nudity on attitude toward the brand and intention to purchase,
research results are contradictory (De Pelsmacker and Van Den Bergh, 1996; Severn, Belch,
and Belch, 1990; Vezina and Paul, 1997), which may reflect the methodology used (i.e., few
studies provide experimental protocols, which makes it possible to check only the influence of
the nudity variable), the choice of product (i.e., nudity in underclothing advertisements likely
is better perceived than nudity in advertising for a car), and the models’ profile. Several
individual model characteristics may affect perceptions, including age (see Loroz, 2006);
gender, because some “viewers respond much more favorably to opposite-sex sexual images
than to their own sex images” (Reichert, LaTour, and Kim, 2007, p. 72); and the masculinity
or femininity of advertisements focused on specific images or utility (Chang, 2006).
These varied results suggest that recourse to nudity has an impact on attitude toward the
advertisement, but that impact depends on individual characteristics, such as age, religious or
gender of both the viewer and the model. Reichert (2002) noticed that the “tolerance for
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evaluation of sexual content in advertising decreases as respondent age increases” and that
religious can explain some differences in attitude.
With regard to the kind, Belch and colleagues (1981) showed that more the
level of nudity rose more the ”arousal” men and women increased, but that the
images of the opposite sex was generally evaluated more favourably.
En ce qui concerne le genre, Belch and colleagues (1981) ont montré que plus le niveau de
nudité s’élevait plus l’ »arousal » des hommes et des femmes s’accroissait, mais que les
images du sexe opposé était généralement évaluée plus favorablement.
The question that now interests us is whether this effect remains homogeneous across various
countries, knowing that the experiments we have presented so far have mainly been
conducted with American consumers.
Impact of nudity, country variations
Ford, La Tour, and Clarke (2004) claim perceptions of nudity in advertising vary to a
significant degree according to the country (Singapore, China, India, USA). A qualitative
study by Lass and Hart (2004) in Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom also indicates that,
in addition to differences between countries, consumers’ gender and values play significant
roles.
If we assume differences in gender or values do not represent a real problem for
advertisers, which usually take such elements into account during their segmentation efforts
within each country, we can turn to cultural and legal differences among countries, which are
more delicate when an advertising campaign covers more than one country. Two international
brands with roughly identical worldwide targets illustrate effectively the problems an
advertiser may confront in this general context. In February 2007, an advertisement for the
Dolce & Gabbana ready-to-wear line, showing a woman surrounded by bare-chested men,
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had to be withdrawn from Spanish magazines after a complaint from the Spanish Women’s
Institute. The ad was also withdrawn from Italy, after which, in response to the dispute, the
company decided to stop it completely and worldwide. Similarly, an advertising poster for the
fashion designers Marithé et Francois Girbaud, which showed a man’s naked back together
with twelve women around a table, reminiscent of Leonardo de Vinci’s Last Supper painting,
was prohibited in Italy in 2005 and authorised in France only after a long legal battle.
The question inherent to these various disputes is whether the protests reflect the
feelings of more or less influential local groups or represent fundamental differences between
the attitudes of consumers in different countries, in support of Orth and colleagues’ (2007)
findings of considerable differences in attitudes toward the ad among Croatia, the Czech
Republic, Hungary, and Poland. These authors conclude in their abstract that “using one
advertising campaign is questionable, if not potentially damaging to advertisers’ efforts.”
The observed practices apparently contradict these results, in that the proportion of
advertising that uses nudity in Europe does not appear to differ significantly among countries.
Koudelova and Whitelock (2001) compare television advertisements in the United Kingdom
and the Czech Republic, and Dianoux, Kettnerová, and Linhart (2006) compare
advertisements in the Czech Republic and France in five principal categories of journals. Both
sources indicate differences in some published formats but none with regard to the use of
nudity. Although no precise information pertains to the Spanish territory at the start of the
Dolce & Gabbana dispute, it seems the use of nudity in advertising does not basically differ.
More generally, Taylor (2005, p. 11), in a synthesis on international advertising research,
notices that “global advertising can work in at least some contexts, and know that, at a
strategic level, multinational companies often use global advertising to build a uniform brand
image”.
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These apparent contradictions between practices and academic research might be
explained by specific methodological choices. Ford, La Tour, and Clarke’s (2004) study
relates to two continents (Asia and North America), which undoubtedly accentuates the crosscultural differences. Orth and colleagues (2007) investigate a broad set of themes, and Lass
and Hart (2004) employ a qualitative methodology with to a widespread sample of
respondents, whose individual characteristics play a considerable role. Our study thus differs
from previous research; in particular, by using a more homogeneous group, and a single
continent, we might not find differences between countries, even if the product has neither a
direct nor an indirect relationship with nudity. In this context, we consider the following
proposition for EU countries:
H1:
If one observes in an European country that a publicity having recourse to
nudity causes a stronger attention (A), a better memorizing (b), or an attitude
with regard to the more favourable advertisement (c) than a publicity not
having recourse to nudity, the same relation should be observed in another
European country, and conversely.
Si l’on observe dans un pays européen qu’une publicité ayant recours à la nudité
provoque une attention plus forte (a), une meilleure mémorisation (b), ou une attitude
à l’égard de l’annonce plus favorable (c) qu’une publicité n’ayant pas recours à la
nudité, la même relation devrait être observée dans un autre pays européen, et
inversement.
If no differences exist between countries, individual characteristics are probably at the
origin of the preferences for an ad with nudity in comparison with one without nudity,
especially in terms of attitude toward the ad. In general, women express different attitudes
toward ads than men (Putrevu, 2004), and Reichert and colleagues (2007b, p. 81) confirm this
difference within the precise framework of a sexy advertisement, such that “overall, the
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findings support a media literacy effect and a gender effect that should be considered by
advertising executives and in any media literacy component pertaining to sexualised images
of women in advertising.” These results are not congruent with Zimmerman and Dahlberg
(2008) who notice that young American women are today “far less offended by the portrayal
of women as sex objects in advertisements than women in past generations.” They explain
that because “college females were raised in a very sexualized world and new feminists (see
as the third wave) see female sexuality as power”. In the European context (France), Manceau
and Tissier Desbordes (2006) show that French women are more hostile to sex in advertising
than men, although it is more advertising use of nudity than nudity itself and young women
are more tolerant than older.
So, if the product in the advertisements lacks any relationship with nudity, these
effects should be even stronger in a European context. Therefore,
H2: Attitude toward an advertisement containing nudity with a sexual connotation
compared with an advertisement without it differs more according to the gender of the
consumer than due to nationality.
Method
Participants
The participants were 514 students (179 from Czech Republic, 169 from Spain, and 166 from
France). Ils étaient tous inscrits en première ou deuxième année de formation en gestion (agés
entre 18 et 21 ans) et ont participé à l’expérimentation durant un cours.
The choice of students has been subject to some criticism (Soley and Reid, 1983), though it
provides a major advantage in this context, because we ensure homogeneous groups in each
country, who are easy to compare, and who likely represent an identical target for
international brands and likely to constitute a transnational European segment
being able to be treated starting from comprehensive approaches (Dawdler,
2000).
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et susceptible de constituer un segment européen transnational pouvant être traité à partir
d’approches globales (Lambin, 2000).
Moreover, younger people accept the use of nudity in advertising more than do older people
(Manceau and Tissier-Desbordes, 2006)
Each of the three countries selected represents a specific step of European participation
(notably in terms of harmonisation laws, free circulation of products and services): France is a
founder country of European Union (1951), Spain joined in 1986, and the Czech Republic
joined in 2004. In addition, we have three well marked European entities:
nous avons trois entités européennes bien marquées:
in the east, countries like the Czech Republic are not frequently investigated in advertising
research (Okazaki and Mueller, 2007), because of the former Soviet bloc which is recently
opened to free market economy and the modern form of advertising; in the west, France has
been considered tolerant with regard to nudity in advertising (Walliser and Moreau, 2000);
and in the south, Spain recently illustrated its refusal to accept advertising by Dolce &
Gabbana.
Experimental material
To carry out the experimentation intended to test our assumptions we used an
ad inserted in a mock-up magazine. The principal choices are explained
hereafter with regard to the product, the advertisement, and the magazine.
Pour mener l’expérimentation destinée à tester nos hypothèses nous avons utilisé des
annonces presse insérées dans un magazine. Les principaux choix sont expliqués ci-après en
ce qui concerne le produit, l’annonce, et le magazine.
Experimental Product. Many researchers highlight different attitudes generated by the use of
nudity that is relevant (e.g., shower gel) versus not relevant (e.g., car) to the advertised
product. We focus on the second version to reinforce any possible differences between
countries. Specifically, we choose a mobile phone as a product likely to interest the sample,
regardless of nationality or gender, that is highly involving but has no direct or indirect link to
nudity. Remarquons également que high tech durable products symbolize the essence of
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modernism and internationalism and frequently use a global consumer culture positioning
(Alden et al., 1999).
Furthermore, we use Nokia, the leading international communications brand in the three
countries, which earned nearly 50% of the market share in Europe in 2007. Most of research
use fictitious brands or known products with the brand hidden (e.g. La Tour, Pitts, SnookLuther, 1990). We have preferred to use a known brand because it would be seen as more
realistic and natural by participants in each country. Beforehand near a score of students
in each country (not questioned within the framework of the experimentation),
auprès d’une vingtaine d’étudiants dans chaque pays (non interrogés dans le cadre de
l’expérimentation),
we had checked there was no difference between groups (approximatively the same attitude
toward the brand, i.e. Nokia phone was the most owned brand in each group and the initial ad,
i.e. this kind of ad is original or usual in your country).
Experimental advertisement. Using a real advertisement for the brand, we added a female
model and depicted either her naked breast (see appendix 1) or her face (appendix 2) on the
telephone’s screen. To ensure the erotic character of the photograph, we selected 10
photographs of naked models and used a process of successive elimination (standard Delphi)
to arrive at the one on which experts (two male and two female in each country) agreed. The
typology uses a scale that ranges from 0 = “no sexual appeal/fully clothed” to 4 = “nudity
with bare bodies, wearing translucent under apparel or lingerie, poses where the model wears
only a towel” (cf. Triandis typology in Nelson and Paek, 2005).
The size of the advertisement also may influence attention. In addition, in the Czech Republic,
advertisements tend to be published on half-pages rather than full pages (Dianoux et al, 2006).
We therefore take this element into account in our experimental design to neutralize any
effect due to the greater habit of Czech with small formats.
Experimental media. We use a magazine in this experiment for two reasons. First, nudity
appears most frequently in this medium, as Reichert and Lambiase (1999) show in a U.S.
context. Second, a magazine facilitates message treatment, because it exerts a positive
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influence on two of the three dimensions of MacInnis and colleagues’ (1991) motivation,
opportunity, and ability model, namely, opportunity and ability.
We insert our experimental advertisement for Nokia into a 12-page mock-up of a magazine,
duplicated in Spanish, Czech, and French versions. Pour chaque pays, deux groupes étaient
exposés au magazine contenant le modèle avec la poitrine nue, l’un à la version demi page,
l’autre à la version pleine page, et deux autres groupes étaient exposés au magazine contenant
le modèle avec la figure l’un à la version demi page, l’autre à la version pleine page. Except
the experimental advertisement for Nokia, the mock magazine contains 9 advertisements (4
quarter-page, 3 half-page, 2 full-page). Toutes ces publicités ont été extraites de magazines
s’adressant à notre population. Les marques étaient les suivantes (dans l’ordre): YSL, Smart,
Coca-Cola, Nokia, Air Europa, different propositions of training courses, the film Ice Age.
The cover page (with a fictitious title “Campus” for each group) and advertisements remain
identical across the three countries, except for text that has been double translated into the
appropriate languages. The articles in the magazine featured similar subjects, likely to appear
in a magazine intended for students.
Experimental design and procedure
Les participants de chaque pays ont été répartis aléatoirement dans quatre groupes distincts et
exposés à l’un des quatre exemplaires du magazine tels que récapitulés dans le tableau 1.
Table 1: Experiment design
Type of Ad
Nokia ad with naked woman
(ad-NW)
Nokia ad with face of woman
(ad-FW)
Ad Size
Half size
Full size
Half size
Full size
Total
Czech
Republic
43
44
45
47
179
Spain
France
40
44
43
42
169
44
44
32
46
166
Total
259
255
514
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We informed the respondents that “a new magazine model is being tested which may become
a students’ magazine. However before finalising this model, your opinion would be
appreciated concerning the form and the content. A short period of time is allotted you to
consult the model (10 minutes exactly), after we will ask you some questions on the subject.”
Ten minutes after they received the magazine, we asked the respondents to close it, with the
cover page facing upward, and answer a first questionnaire. After answering the first part of
the questionnaire, the respondents were asked to reopen the magazine and look carefully at
the experimental advertisement, then answer additional questions.
Measures
The first questionnaire focuses on attitudes toward the advertisements in general (Mehta,
2000), spontaneous and assisted recall of brands and products in the magazine, and purchase
intentions for five telephone brands.
The second questionnaire include 4 measures to determine attention to the ad (watched, paid
attention, concentrated, felt concerned); 21 verbal measures of their affective reactions
(Derbaix, 1995); 8 questions about their attitudes toward the ad (Aad), such that each item
provides a separate Aad indicator (adapted from Coulter, 1998; MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch,
1986); 4 measures of their beliefs about the brand (quality), attitude (I like the phone Nokia),
and intentions (would like to have and intention to purchase); and 16 questions regarding
product involvement with mobile phones (Kapferer and Laurent, 1986). All items in English
were translated into Spanish, Czech, and French using the back translation and decentring
procedure suggested by Brislin (1976) and finalised according to three focus groups’ reactions
in each country.
Results
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With regard to first of all H1a, the attention given to the advertisement (I cuts
paid attention to this AD), the realization of a ANOVA shows a significant
difference between the averages of the three countries (F=11.72 - p=0.000)
caused by the answers of the Czechs whose attention is strongly dissociated
compared to Spanish and with French (post hoc test: CR/France attention with
mean difference= -0.57 - p=0.000; CR/Spain attention with mean difference= 0.49 - p=0.000; and Spain attention/France with mean difference= -0.07 p=1.0). In parallel a difference even stronger is observed when one compares
the attention of the individuals according to the two types of publicity (the AD
with naked woman - AD-NW and the AD with face off the woman - AD-FW)
with F=15.68 - p=0.000.
En ce qui concerne tout d’abord H1a, l’attention accordée à l’annonce (I have paid attention
to this ad), la réalisation d’une ANOVA montre une différence significative entre les
moyennes des trois pays (F=11.72 – p=0.000) provoquée par les réponses des Tchèques dont
l’attention se démarque fortement par rapport aux espagnols et aux français (post hoc test :
attention CR/France avec mean difference= -0.57 - p=0.000 ; attention CR/Spain avec mean
difference= -0.49 - p=0.000; and attention Spain/France avec mean difference= -0.07 - p=1.0).
Parallèlement une différence encore plus forte est observée lorsque l’on compare l’attention
des individus en fonction des deux types de publicité (the ad with naked woman -ad-NW- and
the ad with face of the woman -ad-FW) with F=15.68 - p=0.000. The effect of interaction
between these two variables (country and type of publicity) being negligible
(F=0.162 - p=0.85), we note overall that
L’effet d’interaction entre ces deux variables (pays et type de publicité) étant négligeable
(F=0.162 – p=0.85), nous constatons globalement que
a greater number of those exposed to ad-NW state that they paid attention to this ad compared
with those exposed to ad-FW (p<0.05 for France and Spain and p.<0.10 for CR). More
basically, whatever the variations of the scores from one country to another,
we will retain that the same tendencies are observed in each of the three
countries since one distinguishes the answers from the men and the women
(Table 2). Our H1a assumption is thus checked here.
Plus fondamentalement, quelles que soient les variations des scores d’un pays à l’autre, nous
retiendrons que les mêmes tendances sont observées dans chacun des trois pays dès lors que
l’on distingue les réponses des hommes et des femmes (cf. Table 2). Notre hypothèse H1a est
donc ici vérifiée.
Table 2: Attention toward the ad
I paid attention to
this ad (five-points
Osgood scale
Men
Type of
ad
CR
Spain
France
Ad-NW
Ad-FW
m=4,21
m=3,47
m=4,43
m=3,60
m=4,48
m=3,96
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Women
Ad-NW
Ad-FW
p.=0,005
m=3,07
m=3,13
p.=0,802
p.=0,003
m=4,10
m=4,00
p.=0,709
p.=0,014
m=3,81
m=3,59
p.=0,310
It would be interesting to try to better include/understand the less distinct
answer of Czech to parallel to use this declaratory measurement of the
attention, of the physiological measures. Indeed, those, by more accurately
measuring the real attention of the individuals, would make it possible to check
if the weaker scores obtained with Czech really come from a less constant
attention of their share or from a prudence (even of a decency) in the answer (I
affirm to have paid attention to the advertisement only when I really paid
attention, whereas Spanish, Latin culture, perhaps more readily affirm to have
paid attention to the advertisement). Tendency which we perhaps also find in
the results concerning the spontaneous memorizing of the brand name.
Il serait intéressant pour essayer de mieux comprendre la réponse moins tranchée des
tchèques d’utiliser parallèlement à cette mesure déclarative de l’attention, des physiological
measures. En effet, celles-ci, en mesurant plus fidèlement la réelle attention des individus,
permettraient de vérifier si les scores plus faibles obtenus avec les tchèques proviennent
réellement d’une attention moins soutenue de leur part ou d’une prudence (voire d’une
pudeur) dans la réponse (je n’affirme avoir fait attention à l’annonce que lorsque j’ai vraiment
fait attention, alors que les espagnols, culture latine, affirment peut-être plus volontiers avoir
fait attention à l’annonce). Tendance que nous retrouvons peut-être aussi dans les résultats
concernant la mémorisation spontanée du nom de la marque vantée.
About H1b, although the respondents who can remember the name of the brand Nokia
spontaneously are proportionally more numerous in the ad-NW group than in the ad-FW
group whatever the country, this difference is not significant at a threshold of 5% except for
Spanish people (Table 3). Baron (1982) suggests that “sexual arousal created on page 1 may
contribute to the appeal of a product advertised on page 5,” yet this claim does not seem to
apply here, at least with regard to memory. The spontaneous recall of the Nokia name
achieves the best score (76%) compared with all other ads for international brands in the
magazine (i.e., Coca-Cola, Yves Saint Laurent, and Smart all earn scores lower than 70%),
with no significant difference between respondents exposed to ad-NW and ad-FW. Those
respondents who view ad-FW in the full-page size remember it better than do those exposed
to the same advertisement on a half-page, but we find no difference due to ad size among the
ad-NW group.
In conclusion, although the tendencies between country are the same ones,
one cannot according to these results validating the H1b assumption
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En conclusion, bien que les tendances entre pays soient les mêmes, on ne peut d’après
ces résultats valider l’hypothèse H1b.
Table 3: Recall of brand name
CR
No answer or bad answer
Spontaneous quotation of the advertised brand (Nokia)
Spain
No answer or bad answer
Spontaneous quotation of the advertised brand (Nokia)
France
No answer or bad answer
Spontaneous quotation of the advertised brand (Nokia)
Ad-NW
Ad-FW
26.4%
28.3%
73.6%
71.7%
n1=87 ; n2=92 - p.= 0.87
17.9%
31.8%
82.1%
68.2%
n1=84 ; n2=85 - p.= 0.05
15.9%
21.8%
84.1%
78.2%
n1=88 ; n2=78 - p.= 0.42
Two-sided Fisher Test
In the verbal measure of affective reactions produced by the advertisement, for some items,
ad-NW causes negative (irritated, disgust, unpleasant surprise) or positive reactions (appealed,
inquiring) stronger than those prompted by ad-FW (p.<0.05). This tendency quasi
systematically occurs in each of the three countries for all of the 21 items, with bigger
differences for the Czechs and French than for the Spanish respondents. The size of the
advertisement has no effect.
With regard to the attitude toward the advertisement, detailed observation of the results
for each of the three countries (Table 4) watch that
l’observation détaillée des résultats pour chacun des trois pays (Table 4) montre que we find
identical tendencies. Overall, Czech, Spanish, and French respondents prefer ad-FW (though
not significantly, at 5% except for French people), largely because they perceive a lack of
seriousness for ad-NW, which they believe provides a less convincing message and less
objective information than ad-FW, even though the two advertisements are strictly identical in
their informational content. Nudity thus appears to discredit the contents of the advertisement
in all three countries. Thus even if clear differences appear between countries
with regard to the level of notation, the tendencies remain overall the same
ones: if it is liked or that one finds AD-FW more convincing or more objective
in a country, one notes the same tendency in the two other countries. The
realization of a MANOVA confirms this report by showing that no effect of
interaction exists between the two variables independent “countries” and “type
of publicity”, except for both items (this AD is unusual and this AD is sensual)
which were withdrawn from analysis (standard off AD: F=21,27-p.=0,000;
15
country: F=11,30-p=0,000; type off ad*country: F=0,80-p=0,651). We can
consequently advance that our H1c assumption is validated.
Ainsi même si des différences nettes apparaissent entre pays en ce qui concerne le niveau de
notation, les tendances restent globalement les mêmes : si l’on aime ou que l’on trouve AdFW plus convincing ou plus objectif dans un pays, on constate la même tendance dans les
deux autres pays. La réalisation d’une MANOVA confirme ce constat en montrant qu’aucun
effet d’interaction n’existe entre les deux variables indépendantes « pays » et « type de
publicité », excepté pour les deux items (this ad is unusual and this ad is sensual) qui ont été
retirés de l’analyse (type of ad: F=21,27-p.=0,000; country: F=11,30-p=0,000; type of
ad*country: F=0,80-p=0,651). Nous pouvons dès lors avancer que notre hypothèse H1c est
validée.
Table 4: Comparison of attitude toward ad-NW and ad-FW
7-points Likert scale
I like this ad
This ad is good (nice to look at)
The message is completely convincing
(you are favourable)
The information in this ad is objective
The quantity of information in this ad
satisfies you
This ad appeals more to feelings than to
reason
This ad is unusual
This ad is sensual (sexy)
Czech
Republic
Naked Face
4.17
4.65
t= -1.92 - p=0.056
4.72
4.64
t= 0.34 - p=0.73
4.02
4.57
t= -2.62 - p=0.01
4.41
4.96
t= -2.80 - p=0.00
3.76
3.74
t= 0.071 - p=0.94
5.14
3.66
Spain
France
Naked
Face
Naked
Face
3.21
3.60
3.59
4.15
t= -1.35 - p=0.17
3.86
4.25
t= -1.37 - p=0.17
2.58
3.34
t= -3.11 - p=0.00
3.57
4.29
t= -2.69 - p=0.00
3.94
4.53
t= -2.21- p=0.02
5.44
4.02
t= -2.1 - p=0.04
4.10
4.27
t= -0.57 - p=0.57
3.10
3.64
t= -2.1 - p=0.04
4.02
4.86
t= -3.17 - p=0.00
4.26
4.88
t= -2.24 - p=0.03
5.36
3.76
t= 6.35 - p=0.00
t= 5.33 - p=0.00
t= 5.70 - p=0.00
4.20
5.10
3.68
2.86
3.09
2.87
t= 5.85 - p=0.00
t= 8.36 - p=0.00
t= 2.71 - p=0.01
2.93
3.96
3.97
3.21
t= -1.27 - p=0.20
3.28
t= 2.16 - p=0.03
2.77
t= 3.88 - p=0.00
16
If the tendencies in all three countries are similar; of the different qualities that may
influence attitude toward the ad, gender appears to make the greatest difference. Men offer
higher marks to ad-NW than do women on items such as, “I like this advertisement” or “this
ad is good,” whereas no significant difference emerges between genders for ad-FW. Further
conclusions might be derived from a comparison of attitudes toward both ads within the
women’s group and the men’s group. The results are completely opposite (Table 5), such that
men prefer ad-NW over ad-FW, whereas women prefer ad-FW rather than ad-NW, moreover
the MANOVA shows an important interaction between gender and type of ad (type of ad:
F=10.8 - p.=0.001; gender: F=46.7 - p.=0.000; type of ad*gender: F=51.6 - p.=0.000).
Table 5: Comparison of ad-NW and ad-FW, men versus women
Men
7-points Likert scale
I like this ad
This ad is good (nice to look at)
The message is completely
convincing (you are favourable)
The information in this ad is
objective
The quantity of information in
this ad satisfies you
This ad appeals more to feelings
than to reason
This ad is unusual
This ad is sensual (sexy)
Naked
Women
Face
4.67
4.11
t= 2.55 - p=0.01
5.47
4.50
t= 4.97 - p=0.00
3.70
3.73
t= -0.12 - p=0.90
4.28
4.53
t= -1.24 - p=0.21
4.09
4.20
t= -0.45 - p=0.65
5.48
3.80
t= 7.92 - p=0.00
4.38
2.91
t= 6.69 - p=0.00
4.60
3.33
t= 5.42 - p=0.00
Naked
Face
2.63
4.18
t= -7.89 - p=0.00
2.97
4.31
t= -6.63 - p=0.00
2.77
3.99
t= -5.95 - p=0.00
3.73
4.86
t= -5.66 - p=0.00
3.88
4.46
t= -2.67 - p=0.01
5.13
3.82
t= 6.15 - p=0.00
4.24
2.96
t= 6.04 - p=0.00
2.62
2.91
t= -1.41 - p=0.16
Observations regarding attention and the affective reactions show an identical tendency. More
precisely about the attention, the men state more to have paid attention to the AD-
17
NW than the women (p=0.000) whereas no significant difference appears
between the men and the women for the AD-FW (p=0.603).
les hommes déclarent avoir plus prêté attention à l’Ad-NW que les femmes (p=0.000) alors
qu’aucune différence significative n’apparaît entre les hommes et les femmes pour l’Ad-FW
(p=0.603). About affective reactions, men are more interested, satisfied, agreeably surprised,
captivated, delighted, and enthusiastic, and they find ad-NW more appealing than ad-FW,
whereas women prefer ad-FW on these same dimensions (p < 0.05).
The men give identical responses on the negative items, such as irritated, unpleasantly
surprised, and saddened, for both advertisements, whereas women award higher marks to adNW (p < 0.05). However, no one appears fooled by the use of nudity; the item “while looking
at this advertisement, it made me suspicious” provokes convergent answers between the
genders, such that both women and men are more wary of ad-NW.
These differences between men and women do not seem affected by the
country. Count 6 shows custom that, whatever the country, men prefer gold
find AD-NW better than women and there is No difference between gender for
AD-FW.
Ces differences entre hommes et femmes ne semblent pas affectées par le pays. Table
6 shows us that, whatever the country, men prefer or find Ad-NW better than women and
there is no difference between gender for Ad-FW.
Table 6: Comparison Aad (affective component) by gender for each country and type of ad
Comparison Aad (affective component) by gender for each country and type of ad
I like this ad
This ad is good (nice to
look at)
Czech Republic
Ad-NW
Ad-FW
Spain
Ad-NW
Ad-FW
France
Ad-NW
Ad-FW
M=4,81
W=3,55
t=3,64
p.=0,000
M=5,56
W=3,91
t=4,84
p.=0,000
M=4,48
W=1,95
t=7,221
p.=0,000
M=5,31
W=2,40
t=8,86
p.=0,000
M=4,72
W=2,36
t=6,719
p.=0,000
M=5,52
W=2,55
t=8,796
p.=0,000
M=4,79
W=4,51
t=0,826
p.=0,411
M=4,53
W=4,76
t=-0,73
p.=0,462
M=3,47
W=3,74
t=-0,758
p.=0,451
M=4,51
W=3,98
t=1,58
p.=0,117
M=3,96
W=4,24
t=-0,815
p.=0,418
M=4,44
W=4,18
t=0,707
p.=0,482
M=men - W=women
18
In conclusion, we can say that the differences in attitude toward the ad, specifically
about affective component, depend strongly on the gender of the respondent, not his or her
nationality, and we can advance that H2 is valid.
Yet we also observe an influence of the nationality when we compare the three
countries separately. For ad-NW or ad-FW, attitude toward the ad differs to a significant
degree among Czech, French, and Spanish respondents (Table 7), though not because of the
presence or absence of nudity in the advertisement; we find essentially the same tendencies in
answers pertaining to both ads.
Table 7: Comparison of ad assessments by three nationalities for two advertisements
I like this ad
This ad is good (nice to look at)
The message is completely
convincing (you are favourable)
The information in this ad is
objective
The quantity of information in this
ad satisfies you
This ad appeals more to feelings
than to reason
This ad is unusual
This ad is sensual (sexy)
Ad-NW
Ad-FW
Czech
France Spain
Republic
4.17
3.21
3.59
F= 5.33 - p= 0.00
4.72
3.86
4.10
F= 4.20 - p= 0.02
4.02
2.58
3.10
F= 19.78 - p= 0.00
4.41
3.57
4.02
F= 5.51 - p= 0.00
3.76
3.94
4.26
F= 1.76 - p= 0.17
5.14
5.44
5.36
F= 0.91 - p= 0.40
4.20
5.10
3.68
F= 14.50 - p= 0.00
2.93
3.96
3.97
F= 8.26 - p= 0.00
Czech
France Spain
Republic
4.65
3.60
4.15
F= 9.98 - p= 0.00
4.64
4.25
4.27
F= 1.88 - p= 0.15
4.57
3.34
3.64
F= 14.95 - p= 0.00
4.96
4.29
4.86
F= 4.78 - p= 0.01
3.74
4.53
4.88
F= 9.32 - p=0.00
3.66
4.02
3.76
F= 0.88 - p= 0.41
2.86
3.09
2.87
F= 0.58 - p= 0.56
3.21
3.28
2.77
F= 2.00 - p= 0.14
The difference thus appears to pertain to attitude toward advertising in general rather
than preference for the use of nudity in advertising. We observe significant differences (0.01)
when we compare the answers of Czech, Spanish, and French respondents regarding attitude
19
toward advertising in general, and no significant difference between men and women or
between the ad-NW and ad-FW groups.
Conclusion
The results obtained within the framework of this experiment confirm globally our
hypotheses. First, nationality (in a European context) does not significantly influence attitude
toward sexy advertisement, because we observe the same tendencies across the Czech
Republic, Spain, and France. These results are consistent with Hoeken et al. (2007) who
showed that the preferences of the individuals with regard to several variables
varied
qui ont montré que les preferences des individus à l’égard de plusieurs variables variaient
regardless of their nationality and that the value hierarchies of people from Belgium, the UK,
Germany, the Netherlands and Spain, do not differ. Among the various reasons likely
to explain these homogeneous answers, the authors explain
Parmi les différentes raisons susceptibles d’expliquer ces réponses homogènes, les auteurs
expliquent
that all of these countries are free-market economies with a long tradition in advertising.
In another context, our results show that countries lately converted with the
market economy and not having a long tradition in the advertising field as
Tchéquie can have tendencies similar to those observed in countries like
France or Spain.
Dans un autre contexte, nos résultats montrent que des pays nouvellement convertis à
l’économie de marché et n’ayant pas une longue tradition dans le domaine publicitaire comme
la Tchéquie peuvent avoir des tendances similaires à celles observées dans des pays comme la
France ou l’Espagne.
However, in spite of these identical tendencies between countries (preference
of an advertisement compared to the other), we in parallel noted that when
one preferably compares the level of the country with that of another country
for a specific advertisement, then significant differences appear.
20
Toutefois, malgré ces tendances identiques entre pays (préférence d’une annonce par rapport à
l’autre), nous avons parallèlement constaté que lorsque l’on compare le niveau de préférence
d’un pays à celui d’un autre pays pour une annonce spécifique, des différences significatives
apparaissent.
Indeed, attitudes toward advertising in general and attitudes toward the specific ad can vary
significantly among European countries even for a seemingly homogeneous target, that most
probably involves some specific adaptations and more studies for a better understanding of
these differences.
Second, gender influences attitude toward the ad with nudity versus without nudity,
regardless of the country. Many authors (e.g. Jones, Stanaland, and Gelb, 1998; Maciejewsk,
2004) show that women adopt more negative attitudes toward advertisements that use sexy
female models than do men, independent of the philosophic opinions of the respondents. We
confirm this finding and add that the effect is independent of nationality. We think like
Wilson and Iwawaki (1980), that if “gender differences in social attitudes are consistent
across widely differing cultures, they do not necessarily demand biological explanation”,
because this may vary depending on the context and times.
Indeed, if the tendency observed by Zimmermann and Dahlberg (2008) in the
that the third wave of feminists see female sexuality as power, is confirmed, one could
from here a few years note a change in Europe very well.
En effet, si la tendance observée par Zimmerman and Dahlberg (2008) aux USA that the third
wave of feminists see female sexuality as power, se confirme, on pourrait très bien d’ici
quelques années constater un changement en Europe.
From a managerial point of view, these results show that an advertiser which
wonders about the relevance of the recourse to nudity in a European publicity
campaign can plan to use the same advertisement in each country. Indeed,
the choice to include a naked mannequin in a European publicity campaign
(vs. without it) should have the same incidences whatever the country. Thus
21
the use of naked or not nude model cannot be regarded as a variable of
adaptation of a communication in an European country.
D’un point de vue managérial, ces résultats montrent qu’un annonceur qui s’interroge sur la
pertinence du recours à la nudité dans une campagne publicitaire européenne peut envisager
d’utiliser la même annonce dans chaque pays. En effet, le choix d’inclure un mannequin nu
dans une campagne publicitaire européenne (vs. ne pas l’inclure) devrait avoir les mêmes
incidences quel que soit le pays. Ainsi l’usage du nu ou non ne peut pas être considéré comme
une variable d’adaptation d’une communication dans un pays européen.
On the other hand, the results show that advertisers should take greater care in defining their
target market in terms of gender than with regard to the European country in which the
advertising with nudity will appear. Although these results justify the homogeneous use of
sexual stimuli in a European campaign,
it remains that the differences observed between country for the same
advertisement and L `attitude with regard to publicity in general militate for
research D `other elements of adaptation.
il reste que les différences observées entre pays pour une même annonce et pour l‘attitude à
l’égard de la publicité en général militent pour la recherche d‘autres éléments d’adaptation.
In addition to the necessary extrapolation of this work to more European countries to
validate our assumptions, several limits of this research should be underlined,
each one of these limits in addition opening as many new tracks of research
chacune de ces limites ouvrant par ailleurs autant de nouvelles pistes de recherche.
First, the type of product selected does not justify the use to nudity, but what might happen in
the case of a product more coherent with a nudity appeal
22
knowing what the factor which explains best the dismantles off model nudity
(for female male gold) in ads across countries is the congruent product
category (Nelson and Paek, 2008)?
sachant que le facteur qui explique le mieux the degree of model nudity (for female or
male) in ads across countries is the congruent product category (Nelson and Paek, 2008)?
Research should investigate whether the difference observed between men and women
becomes blurred. Second, the experiment includes only female nudity, whereas further
research should include male nudity as well, which is less common but seems to appear more
frequently nowadays (Elliott and Elliott, 2005). Moreover, we have used a face vs. a naked
body (à partir du nombril) and yet women are shown with less facial prominence than men in
printed media (Archer and colleagues, 1983) notably in advertisement photographs
(Zuckerman, 1986), and the potential influence of facial prominence on perceptions could be
interesting to take in account, because the body-ism associated with a naked chest for a
product not related to nudity may reinforce women as sex objects (Hall and Crum, 1994).
Third, we use a global brand and young respondents, which might erase regional
differences. What would happen in the case of an older target group, which may be more
culturally influenced by their nationalities? The young subjects in our study also tend to be
more open to this form of communication, and the context of our experiment likely biased the
results somewhat, because “magazines induce[] liking and positive feelings [which has] a
positive influence on the attitude toward the ad” (Moorman, Neijens, and Smit, 2002). Our
magazine was fictitious but the experimental ad was among classical ads, is the same ad in a
magazine targeted toward a different audience, such as one gender exclusively and with a lot
of ads using nudity, might have a different effect?
Fourth,
our study related only to countries mainly catholic, the dominant church to
Europe, the results it would have been also homogeneous with other churches
(Protestant, orthodoxe) or religions presenting of the differences more marked
23
even (Islam) and strongly present in Europe. Indeed, " religious been worth
may offer another explanatory been worth construct for predicting nudity in
content media” (Nelson and Paek, 2008). Lastly, let us note that if the different
sensitivities with regard to publicity observed in each of the three countries
(table 7), militate for a development of work on this subject, they illustrate
perhaps also the difficulties of measurements since it is a question of
comparing for the same stimulus the level of the absolute scores allotted in
each country.
notre etude n’a porté que sur des pays majoritairement catholiques, l’église dominante
en Europe, les resultats auraient-il été aussi homogènes avec d’autres églises (protestantes,
orthodoxes) ou des religions présentant des différences encore plus marquées (islam) et
fortement présentes en Europe. Indeed, "religious values may offer another explanatory value
construct for predicting nudity in media content” (Nelson and Paek, 2008). Enfin, notons que
si les sensibilités différentes à l’égard de la publicité observées dans chacun des trois pays
(table 7), militent pour un développement des travaux sur ce sujet, elles illustrent peut-être
aussi les difficultés de mesures dès lors qu’il s’agit de comparer pour un même stimulus le
niveau des scores absolus attribués dans chaque pays.
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