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CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 Year 9 Psychology Memory Name Teacher Tutor group 1 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 Memory falls within the cognitive area of psychology, because it looks at mental processes and the way in which information is processed within our brain. Memory consists of three key stages: encoding, storage and retrieval. Input and Encoding Retrieval and Output Storage Activity: Match up the definition to the process. 1. Encoding The ability to hold memories in the mind The process of changing a sensory experience into a code that the brain can understand 2. Storage The ability to access memories from storage 3. Retrieval You need to know two core theories that are used to explain memory: MultiStore Model and Reconstructive Memory 2 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 1. Multi-Store Model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin) The multi-store model of memory was developed by two cognitive psychologists who suggested that there are three main parts of memory. Sensory Store Information from our senses enters our brain and is held in the sensory store ready for processing Attention Short-Term Memory Information from our sensory store is transferred to the short-term store. Rehearsal Information here will either be lost or transferred to the long-term store if the information is rehearsed. Long-Term Memory Information that is important and is rehearsed is transferred into this store, the long-term store. 3 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 The three stores differ in their capacity, duration and types of encoding. Capacity = How much information can the store hold? Duration = How long will the information stay in the store? Capacity Sensory Store Duration Encoding Capacity Short-Term Memory Duration Encoding Capacity Long-Term Memory Duration Encoding Every theory in Psychology needs to be evaluated, which means we should look at the available evidence to make a judgement on how good the model is. 4 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 1. Evidence for the model Research by Murdock shows that when remembering words from a list, the words as the beginning of the list, and the words at the end of the list are remembered best. This is known as the primacy and the recency effect. It is thought that the words at the beginning of the list have been rehearsed enough to be transferred to the long-term store, and the words at the end of the list are still in the short-term store. This provides evidence to support the multi-store model of memory. Number of words remembered Beginning of list End of list 2. Evidence against the model The multi-store model of memory says that rehearsal of information is essential for it to be transferred into the long-term memory store. Rehearsal isn’t the only thing that could be important for transferring information to the long-term store. What else may be important? …………………………………………………………………………………....................... ………………………………………………………………………....................…………... ……………………………………………………………………....................……………... 5 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 3. Evidence against the model The multi-store model is reductionist What does the term reductionist mean? …………………………………………………………………...................………………... ……………………………………………………………………..................……………... ………………………………………………………………………...................…………... 6 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 Research in Psychology Everything we study in psychology is underpinned by research. For each topic, you will have at least two studies to learn in depth. For each study you need to know: the background, aim, methods, results, conclusions, criticisms Core Study - – Wilson, Kopelman and Kapur (2008) Prominent and persistent loss of past awareness in amnesia: delusion, impaired consciousness or coping strategy (the Clive Wearing study) Background Aim Sample Experimental Design Independent Variable Dependent Variable Method 7 CPS GCSE Psychology Results Conclusions Criticisms Strengths 8 2016-2017 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 2. Theory of Reconstructive Memory We like to think we are good at remembering things, but the truth is, sometimes our memory lets us down and our memories become flawed. This is an issue because the ‘error’ becomes part of our memory, meaning we do not really know that we’re wrong. Schemas From the time we are born, we are constantly learning new information about the world. Information has to be stored in our mind, and the reconstructive theory of memory suggests that our mind is full of ‘schemas’. A schema is a bit like a filing cabinet for all the information we have on, just about, everything. They are organised packages of information that stores our knowledge about the world. For example, we all have a schema based on gender. To access your schema, or the file containing information about males and females, write a list of all the words you associate with males and females: Males Females You might notice that the information in your gender schemas are quite stereotyped, this is often the way. These schemas come into play when there are gaps in our memory. We fill in these gaps using stereotypes and expectations based on the information that we have stored in our schemas. These memories are distorted, but we do not realise this. 9 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 CONFABULATION ................................................................................................. ................................................................................................. ................................................................................................. There are some situations that are more likely to result in distorted memories than others. One of the key issues looked at in Psychology is that of ‘leading questions’ in police questioning. A leading question is a question that hints to the desired answer. Read the following examples of leading questions and identify what makes the question leading, and what the desired answer is likely to be. "That's a good thing to do, isn't it?" …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………..........................................................................……………….. "You are coming tonight, aren't you?" …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………...........................................................................…………………….. “You do love me, don’t you?” …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………............................................................................ 10 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 When do leading questions and distorted memories become a problem? During court cases, eyewitnesses are asked to give testimonies based on the crime that they have witnessed. If lawyers ask leading questions, they could influence the answer the eyewitness gives. This can lead to false information being given, which can have a huge impact on the case. When eyewitnesses have gaps in their memories, they may use prior knowledge, or expectations, to fill in the parts that they can’t remember. Once again, this can lead to false memories, and false information being given during a court case. Evidence for the theory of reconstructive memory There is evidence from research to support the idea of reconstructive memory. Research by Bartlett gives evidence that we are likely to change information to make it consistent with our prior knowledge and schemas. Bartlett’s War of the Ghosts study In his famous study 'War of the Ghosts', Bartlett (1932) showed that memory is not just a factual recording of what has occurred, but that we try to fit what we remember with what we really know and understand about the world based on our schemas. As a result, we often change our memories so they become more sensible to us. Bartlett’s participants heard a story and had to tell the story to another person and so on, like a game of “Chinese Whispers”. The story was a Native American legend called “The War of the Ghosts”. When asked to recount the detail of the story, each person seemed to recall it in their own individual way. With every time the participants retold it, the passages became shorter, confusing ideas were rationalized or left out altogether and details changed to become more familiar or conventional. For example, the information about the ghosts was left out as it was difficult to explain. For this research Bartlett concluded that memory is not exact and is distorted by existing schema, or what we already know about the world. It seems, therefore, that each of us ‘reconstructs’ our memories to conform to our personal beliefs about the world. 11 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 Evidence against the model Once again, we come to the issue of reductionism. If a theory is reductionist, the explanation is too simple and does not take into account a number of other factors. The reconstructive model does not explain how information is encoded, how information is stored and does not discuss how reconstruction and retrieval actually occurs. Core Study – Braun, Ellis and Loftus (2002) How advertising can change our memories of the past Background Aim Sample Method (Including research methods) 12 CPS GCSE Psychology Results Conclusions Criticisms Strengths 13 2016-2017 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 Application of psychology – Techniques used for recall in advertisements. Theories and ideas in psychology can be used in real-life situations to influence human behaviour and thoughts. For the topic of memory, the application of psychology looks at how we can use psychological techniques to help individuals to remember advertisements in the media. 14 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 Application of psychology – Techniques used for recall in advertisements. 15 CPS GCSE Psychology 2016-2017 Glossary Anterograde Amnesia Multi-Store Model Attention Primacy Effect Capacity Recency Effect Confabulation Reconstructive Memory Duration Reductionism Encoding Rehearsal Leading Question Retrieval Long-Term Store Retrograde Amnesia Multi-Store Model Schema Primacy Effect Sensory Store Recency Effect Short-Term Store Reconstructive Memory Storage 16