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2013 DOCUMENT REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF COMMUNITY ADAPTATION PLAN OF ACTION AND LOCAL ADAPTATION PLANS OF ACTION Submitted to Submitted by Multi-Stakeholder Forestry Programme- Service Support Unit (MSFP-SSU) Dipesh Pyakurel Rajesh Bista and Laxman Ghimire ACKNOWLEGEMENT a ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS CAPA Community Adaptation Plans of Action CBO Community Based Organizations CC Climate Change CF Community Forests CFUGs Community Forest User Groups DDC District Development Committee DFID Department for International Development GHG Green House Gases GoF Government of Finland GoN Government of Nepal HH Household IFP Interim Forestry Project IGA Income Generating Activities IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change LAPA Local Adaptation Plans of Action LFP Livelihoods and Forestry Programme LRP Local Resource Persons MFSC Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation MoEnv Ministry of Environment MSFP Multi Stakeholder Forestry Programme NAPA National Adaptation Programme of Action NGO Non Governmental Organization NRs Nepalese Rupees/ currency PILMG Public and Institutional Land Management Groups SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation SSU Service Support Unit UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change VDC Village Development Committee VFCC Village Forest Coordination Committee b EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Community Adaptation Plans of Action (CAPA) and Local Adaptation Plan of Actions (LAPA) are adaptation plans prepared at community and VDC level respectively and are considered good practice to ensure the bottom up planning process. This report reviews the adequacy and efficacy of these plans in assessing climate induced threats and hazards, designing appropriate adaptation options, measuring their interrelationships and analyzing budget accordingly. The information is expected to be useful for VDC and DDC during the plan preparation. Therefore, CAPA and LAPA were reviewed with an objective to prepare a central data set of all CAPAs and LAPAs and produce a comprehensive report comprising priority of need based interventions, identifying key impacts that CAPA and LAPA have documented particularly in relation to water, agriculture, forests and biodiversity, and put forward recommendations for consideration by the Multi Stakeholder Forestry Programme (MSFP) through their future activities. Review of climate change related policy documents and CAPA and LAPA prepared at community and VDC level is the key approach adopted for this study. A total of 516 adaptation plans were reviewed and more than 175 variables were defined for the database preparation. The adaptation plans were first categorized into three broad types: CAPA prepared for Tarai districts (96 CAPA), CAPA prepared for hilly districts (274 CAPA), and LAPA prepared for hilly districts (146). Due to limited information, separate database was developed for CAPA prepared at Tarai. A single database was used to analyze the CAPA and LAPA prepared at hills. Seven key steps were followed during adaptation plan preparation viz: awareness and sensitization, capacity building, vulnerability assessment and mapping, adaptation plan preparation, integration of adaptation plans, implementation of adaptation plans, and monitoring and evaluation. A total of 13 tools were used to prepare the adaptation plans. The process involved wide range of stakeholders to ensure the ownership on the plan. A total of 96 CAPA prepared by CFUGs at Rupandehi, Kapilbastu and Nawalparasi districts were reviewed. The major climate induced threats documented were flood and river cutting, fire, drought, cold wave, storms, diseases to human and livestock, decline in agricultural productivity and spreading of invasive species. River bank erosion and flooding were identified as the major threat in majority of CAPA analyzed (75 out of 96 CAPA). It was observed that none of the analyzed CAPAs had reported water related issues as major climatic threats. Other additional risks associated with impacts of climate change (not identified in CAPA) were erratic rainfall, deterioration of soil quality (????), increased incident of flash flood, habitat shrinkage (for wildlife) etc. Causes of GHG emission were identified as forest fire, livestock droppings, fuel wood consumption, forest degradation, and increased use of chemical fertilizers, improper solid waste management and shifting cultivation. c Adaptation activities as identified by CAPA prepared in three Tarai districts were awareness, embankment, plantation, fire line construction, water and forest management, diversification of crops and alternative energy. Flood and river cutting was the major climatic threat identified in most CAPAs and embankment was identified as one of the adaptation interventions in the CAPA analyzed. Similarly, fire line construction was adaptation activities identified against the forest fire. Total estimated budget required for the implementation of a typical CAPA at Tarai is NRs 1,30,429 . A total of 274 CAPA and 146 LAPA prepared in 12 hilly districts were reviewed and analyzed. Analysis of timeline showed that climate induced disasters in the form of flood/landslides/erosion, drought, fire, hailstone, snowfall, storm, diseases, food crisis, drying of springs, introduction of invasive species and forest degradations were more prominent after 2050. All these incidents were very few before 2030, which might be due to the impacts of climate change. Communities are however, unable to remember the past incidents. Decline in agricultural productivity was recorded by 406 out of 420 adaptation plans. Similarly, other identified impacts are: occurrence of pests and diseases, decline in soil fertility, loss of local cultivars of crops (?), and early flowering and fruiting. The impact of climate change is visible in forests and biodiversity sector with decline in flora and fauna, outbreak of invasive species, increased incidents of forest fire, increased incidents of landslides and erosion and early flowering. There are still other impacts such as special and ecosystem composition (morphological????) change, habitat shrinkage but these are not mentioned in the adaptation plans. The most prominent and visible impact of climate change in water is decrease in water source and drying off of springs. 345 out of 420 adaptation plans have indicated the decrease in traditional water source. Other impacts related to water are inadequate water for all purposes, decline in water level and erratic rainfall. Adaptation interventions as identified by CAPA and LAPA prepared at hilly districts were management of irrigation/drinking water, plantation, awareness creation, adaptation fund mobilization, forest management (silvicultural practices, forest cleaning, fire line construction etc), income generation activities, alternative energy, embankment and crop diversification. Landslides, erosion, and flood incidents were the major climatic threats identified and subsequently embankment, plantation and forest management was identified as adaptation interventions in most of the analyzed CAPAs and LAPAs. Similarly, drought and fire was identified as one of the impacts of climate change and water conservation and management was identified as a viable adaptation option. The adaptation plan was very much near to the reality in terms of addressing the climatic threats. Core adaptation activities (such as afforestation, reforestation, community-based forest management, water and soil d conservation, running health camps/improving health services, establishment of service centres etc.) need to be carried out to adequately address these issues, along with awareness. Analyzing the CAPAs and LAPAs prepared in hills, an amount of NRs 16,86,250 is needed for the implementation of a single adaptation plan in the hilly areas. It can be concluded that sectoral biasness, facilitators knowledge and influence, insufficient institutional ownership, inadequate local participation during plan preparation, higher budget of the implementation and limited budget allocation for monitoring are the major drawbacks of the adaptation plans. Following recommendations are drawn from the review to improve the LAPAs and CAPAs (??) Awareness raising and sensitization of communities, forest and other user group functionaries; supporting govt. non-governmental organizations, media, political party leaders/workers and relevant state actors regarding . Mainstreaming forestry, biodiversity and ecosystem related elements in LAPAs and CAPAs to ensure that important elements of all the social/community, economic, and ecosystem aspects are included in the adaptation plans; All the LAPAs and CAPAs should be updated with the latest information through a quick and efficient method so that plans are robust since M&E will be as good as the plans themselves will be., Effectiveness of adaptation plans should be evaluated based on clear output and outcome indicators during their implementation at mid-term and post implementation stages based on the field level data collection and multi-stakeholder consultations; it is necessary to deploy an expert team to monitor and verify the timely delivery, efficiency and effectiveness of adaptation activities of these plans. Periodic participatory assessment for implementation quality and timely completion of planned activities of adaptation plans are necessary to do the mid-course correction and appropriately guide the execution of planned actions. A robust fund leveraging mechanism should be developed under the chairmanship of Local Development Officer (e.g. establishing a basket fund in DDC) in case of LAPA and under the VDC chair/secretary in case of CAPA. Technical, individual and institutional capacity of implementing organizations and required skills and knowledge of LRPs should be enhanced; this will be instrumental in updating/implementing/preparing practical and innovative adaptation plans now and in future. Community based organizations/institutions (CBOs) including CFUGs and VDCs should lead CAPA preparation process in collaboration with technically sound local e experts, external agencies and others; Timely and quality involvement in and ownership of local communities and institutions can help in preparing and implementing more realistic, locally relevant CAPAs and also ensures their active involvement throughout the implementation, monitoring, and evaluation process. There is an urgent need for developing rules and regulations on climate change adaptation planning and implementation process at different levels and scales by specifying roles and responsibilities of different agencies and laying down clear working procedures for everyone to follow so that implementation and monitoring of the progress will be smooth. Efforts should be made to include more female, dalits, indigenous peoples and socially excluded communities in the preparation of adaptation plans ensuring their meaningful participation; Provision and establishment of urgent and emergency response measures in response to unpredicted disasters and extreme events such as early warning systems (EWS) for flood/GLOF disasters, district/local adaptation funds (DAF), disaster mitigating structures, property insurance schemes, in each adaptation plans will reduce disaster risks and enhance community resilience. Although the vulnerability assessment tools used to prepare adaptation plans are comprehensive in addressing the communities' vulnerability but they did not adequately address ecosystem and species vulnerability; Therefore, existing tools can be integrated with other tools like 'species/landscape level vulnerability or flowing forward vulnerability assessment methodology' to address the species and ecosystem vulnerability. Successful implementation of adaptation plans requires holistic, participatory, and multi-stakeholder approaches and multi-sectoral support; therefore mechanisms to ensure proper co-ordination, co-operation, and coherence will be absolutely paramount; DDCs and VDCs leadership should therefore be properly sensitised, capacitated, and required to ensure this critical requirements. f TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. c PART ONE: INTRODUCITON .......................................................................................................... 8 1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 8 1.2 Rationale ................................................................................................................................. 9 1.3 Objectives................................................................................................................................ 9 1.4 Limitations............................................................................................................................. 10 PART TWO: METHODS................................................................................................................ 11 2.1 Approach and Framework .................................................................................................... 11 2.2 Activities as per the Objectives ............................................................................................. 12 2.3 List of Variables / Database Management ............................................................................ 12 PART THREE: REVIEW OF CLIMATE RELATED POLICY DOCUMENTS ............................................... 17 3.1 National Adaptation Programmes of Action 2010 (NAPA) ................................................... 17 3.2 Climate Change Policy, 2011 ................................................................................................. 18 3.3 National Framework for Local Adaptation Plans of Action, 2011 (LAPA) ............................. 18 PART FOUR: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ........................................................................................ 20 4.1 Review of CAPA and LAPA Preparation Process ................................................................... 20 4.1.1 Participation .................................................................................................................. 21 4.1.2 Tools .............................................................................................................................. 21 4.1.3 Time required to prepare adaptation plans.................................................................. 22 4.2 CAPA Prepared at Tarai ......................................................................................................... 22 4.2.1 Involvement of CFs in the preparation of CAPA ........................................................... 22 4.2.2 Analysis of threats in Tarai districts .............................................................................. 23 4.2.3 Causes of GHG Emission in Tarai region ....................................................................... 24 4.2.4 Adaptation Interventions .............................................................................................. 25 4.2.5 Effectiveness of Adaptation Options in Tarai................................................................ 26 4.2.6 Interrelationship of threats and causes of GHG with adaptation activities ................. 26 4.2.7 Estimated Budget of the Plan and Beneficiaries ........................................................... 27 4.3 CAPA Prepared at hilly districts............................................................................................. 29 4.3.1 Physical and Sociological characteristics ...................................................................... 29 4.3.2 Chronological Analysis of Threats ................................................................................. 32 4.3.3 Sectorial Impacts ........................................................................................................... 33 4.3.4 Adaptation Interventions .............................................................................................. 34 4.3.5 Effectiveness of Adaptation Options in hilly districts ................................................... 36 4.3.6 Interrelationship between threats and adaptation activities ....................................... 36 4.3.7 Estimated Budget of the Plan ....................................................................................... 36 4.4 Critical Assessment of CAPA and LAPA ................................................................................. 38 PART FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................. 40 5.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 40 5.2 Recommendation.................................................................................................................. 41 REFERENCES .............................................................................................................................. 43 ANNEXES ...................................................................................................................................... i g PART ONE: INTRODUCITON 1.1 Background Climate Change Adaptation can be defined as adjustment in ecological, social, or economic systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli and their effects or impacts (IPCC 2001). Adapting to the changes has consequently emerged as a solution to address the impacts of climate change that are already evident in some regions. It involves adjustments to reduce the vulnerability of communities, regions, or activities to climatic change and variability. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report states that "adaptation will be necessary to address impacts resulting from the warming which is already unavoidable due to past emissions" (IPCC, 2007: 18). Adaptation to climate change is considered especially relevant for developing countries where societies are already struggling to meet the challenges posed by existing climate variability (Yamin et al. 2005; Adger et al. 2003; Handmer 2003), and are therefore expected to be the most adversely affected by climate change (McCarthy et al. 2001). Realizing the increasing impacts of climate change, Government of Nepal (GoN) prepared and promulgated National Adaptation Programme of Action 2010 (NAPA), climate change Policy 2011, and National Framework on Local Adaptation Plan for Action 2011 (LAPA framework). These policy documents address the national deliberation regarding the impact of climate change and suggest developing coping strategies. All these policy documents unanimously identified rural communities as most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and emphasize to elevate their adaptive capacity to cope against climatic hazards. Community Adaptation Plans of Action (CAPA) is an adaptation plan prepared at community level and is considered as the best practice to ensure the bottom up planning process (CADPN 2011).The concept of CAPA was coined to: identify the impacts of climate change; identify best possible adaptation options (suited to local condition); prepare adaption plans; integrate the prepared community level plans in Village Development Committee (VDC) level planning process; and to make local development process more climate change sensitive and climate proofed. Community Forests (CF) is a successful intervention of Nepal's forestry sector with more than 40% population involved, enhanced forest management, ensuring equitable benefit sharing and gender and social inclusiveness. Therefore most of the CAPA in the hilly regions are prepared at CF level. Further, CF is a resourceful institution and identified as the effective way to reach to the climate vulnerable communities. However, Tarai regions especially southern Tarai have limited forests. As a result, most of the CAPA in Tarai are prepared using other institutions like User Groups, Public and Institutional Land Management Groups (PILMG), Collaborative Forest Management etc. Whatever local institutions are used, CAPA identifies local level impacts of Climate Change and the adaptation options are close to ground reality. 8 Adaptation plans prepared at the VDC level or compilation of CF level CAPAs to VDC level adaption plan is known as Local Adaptation Plan of Actions (LAPA). CAPA prepared at community level and later synthesized into VDC level LAPA is more effective as compared to LAPA directly prepared at Village level because the chances of duplication of activities are nullified, and activities are more realistic and need based (CADPN 2011). 1.2 Rationale With the technical and financial support from the Government and Non-Governmental Organizations, local communities of 15 districts1 have prepared about 1500 CAPA (MSFP 2011). Livelihoods and Forestry Programme (LFP) and later Interim Forestry Project (IFP) were the key organizations to support the CAPA and LAPA initiative. Most of the CAPA had been endorsed by the assembly of each community and are in the process of implementation. These knowledge and experience could be useful in the future intervention, and to fulfil one of the four areas of support of Multi Stakeholder Forestry Programme (MSFP)2. MSFP is a forestry programme of the Government of Nepal (GoN) supported by DFID, SDC and GoF that aims to improve livelihoods and resilience of the poor and disadvantaged people in Nepal by maximising the contribution of the country’s forestry sector to inclusive economic growth, poverty reduction and tackling climate change. The revision of CAPA and LAPA and preparation of central database of prioritized adaptation interventions is expected to be useful for the future projects to identify and prioritize adaptation activities and allocate budget accordingly. The information will be useful for VDC and DDC during the development and identification of plans. Multi sectoral activities are incorporated in CAPA and LAPA therefore the database and analyzed result is expected to be useful for other line agencies also. In this regard, CAPA and LAPA were revised and central database of prioritized adaptation interventions in water, agriculture, forests and biodiversity was prepared, which is expected to be crucial in prioritizing MSFP interventions. The recommendations drawn by this review is expected to draft the new forestry sector strategies. 1.3 Objectives The main objective of this review was to prepare a central data set of all CAPA and LAPA and produce a comprehensive report of their analysis. Specific objectives are: Review of content of CAPA and LAPA documents in relation to their priority of intervention as a measure of local adaptation. Key impacts of Climate Change that CAPA had documented particularly in relation to water, agriculture, forests and biodiversity in community forests. 1 LFP has initiated the CAPA and LAPA process in 15 districts viz: Dhankuta, Tehrathum, Sankhuasabha, Bhojpur, Baglung, Parbat, Rukum, Rolpa, Pyuthan, Salyan, Dang, Myagdi, Rupendehi, Nawalparasi, Kapilbastu 2 One of the four major areas of support is "Supporting rural communities – especially the poor, disadvantaged and climate vulnerable - for better livelihoods through access to forest products and services" 9 Identify and prioritize adaptation activities identified by the CFUG that are prepared based on their needs. Recommend how these community level adaptation plans can be used in MSFP interventions. 1.4 Limitations INGOs and bilateral aid agencies like LFP, WWF Nepal, NSCFP, Practical Action, etc have supported local communities to prepare LAPA and CAPA. The current assignment has the scope of reviewing about 1500 CAPA and LAPA that were mostly prepared with the technical and financial support of LFP and IFP. It should be noted that LFP and IFP had supported local communities of all geographical regions (Tarai, hills and mountains) to prepare LAPA and CAPA. CAPA in hills and mountains are prepared at CFUG level whereas it was made at CFUG level, User Groups level and PILMG level in the Tarai region. This assignment is limited to review 516 CAPA and LAPA (370 CAPA and 146 LAPA prepared by CFUGs and Village Forest Coordination Committee (VFCC) respectively. CAPA preparation process at Tarai and in the hilly areas varies considerably. Central database system was therefore prepared and analyzed at two different levels as per the availability of data (information of CAPA at the Tarai region was very brief). 10 PART TWO: METHODS 2.1 Approach and Framework The assignment has the scope of reviewing CAPA and LAPA and identifying the key impacts (on forests and biodiversity, water, and agriculture) and prioritized adaptation interventions. Therefore desk review and multi dimensional analysis is the key approach for this study. Figure 1 gives the broad methodological framework adopted for the study. Figure 1: Methodological Framework Literatures were reviewed to understand the Climate Change adaptation policies and programmes and community adaptation planning process. Some of the reviewed literature were National Adaptation Programme of Action to Climate Change (2010); Climate Change Policy (2011); National LAPA Framework (2011), Participatory Tools and Techniques for Assessing Climate Change Impact and Exploring Adaptation Options (2010); Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation through Community Based Planning (2010) etc. Moreover, 516 CAPA and LAPA prepared by CFUGs and VFCC respectively were rigorously reviewed to identify and prioritize adaptation interventions, sectoral impacts of Climate Change and to integrate these adaptation options for MSFP reference. More than 175 variables were defined and database was designed using SPSS 19 software. The variables and database was shared with MSFP-SSU team and after taking the feedbacks, variables are database were redefined and finalized. A total of 516 CAPA and LAPA were first 11 categorized into three broad categories: (a) CAPA prepared at Tarai districts, (b) CAPA prepared at hilly districts, and (c) LAPA prepared at hilly districts. There was limited information on CAPA prepared at Tarai therefore separate database and variables were designed. Finally, the information of CAPA and LAPA were coded based on the defined variables. Finally, the outcomes of the database were analyzed from different perspectives; focusing on impact of CC and adaptation interventions on water, agriculture, and forests and biodiversity and final report was prepared. 2.2 Activities as per the Objectives Objective 1: Review the content of CAPA and LAPA documents in relation to their priority of intervention as a measure of local adaptation. A total of 370 CAPA (96 prepared at Tarai districts and 274 prepared at the hilly districts) and 146 LAPA were reviewed to identify the prioritized adaptation activities. The priority of intervention varies according to space therefore geography is considered during the review. Objective 2: Key impact of Climate Change that CAPA and LAPA had documented particularly in relation to water, agriculture, forests and biodiversity in community forests. The sectoral impact of Climate Change on water, agriculture and forests and biodiversity were documented and central database on key impacts and key adaptation interventions was prepared. Objective 3: Identify and prioritize adaptation activities identified by the CFUG and VFCC that are prepared based on their needs. The database was developed in such a way that it collectively covers the outputs as anticipated by objectives 1, 2 and 3. The database was analyzed focusing on the need based adaptation activities as identified by CAPA and VFCC as they are institutional homes to address the climate change vulnerability and to increase the resilience of vulnerable communities with the inclusion of appropriate adaptation activities. Geographical proximity is again considered during the analysis. Objective 4: Recommend how these community level adaptation plans can be used in MSFP interventions. The CAPA development process was reviewed to assess its effectiveness. Climate Change impacts and adaptation interventions on each sectors were analyzed and concrete recommendations were drawn. 2.3 List of Variables / Database Management SPSS software was used to prepare the central database. A list of variables was prepared under broad themes (water, agriculture, forests and biodiversity) and cross cutting themes (gender, livelihoods). 12 Table 1: List of Variables under broad themes SN 1 Themes/ Broad Category General Information 2 Timeline (before 2030; 2030-2050; and after 2050) 3 CC Impacts on Agriculture 4 CC Impacts on Forest and Biodiversity Variables/Categories Name of District Tarai/Midhills/Himal (specify) e.g. Kabilvastu (T) Name of LAPA/CAPA No of HH LAPA covers Population Name of CFUG/Name of VFCC Name of VDC Area of CF in Hectare Average altitude of CF in meter Dominant forest type No. of year of the CFUG establishment Total HH members of the CFUG Occurrence of flash/heavy floods, major landslides and mud slides/slope failure Occurrence of major drought events Occurrence of forest fire Occurrence of destructive hailstone and snowfall Occurrence of violent storm Occurrence of tropical diseases (Cholera, Malaria; Kaljar; bird flu, dengue, cholera etc) Occurrence of serious food crisis nearing famine situation Drying of natural springs/ponds (no.) Average annual summer temperature Av. Annual winter temperature Average annual Precipitation Av. Annual snow fall No of rainy days No of human deaths due to natural disasters No. of animal deaths No. of energy sources No of people migrating/year No of villages migrated due to impacts of CC Decline in agriculture productivity Decline in soil fertility Use of and impact of chemical fertilizer Increased incidence of pest and disease Early flowering and ripening Species migration Loss of local breed of cattle Introduction of improved breeds of animals Introduction of hybrid crops Spread of invasive species (no.) Habitat fragmentation (specify as forest, or grazing etc) 13 SN Themes/ Broad Category 5 CC Impacts on Water Resources 6 CC Impacts on Human Health 7 CC Impacts on Energy Source 8 CC Impacts on Civil Infrastructure 9 Adaptation Practices Variables/Categories Forest habitat loss (land conversion) Degradation of forest ( quality in terms of finding of NTFPs/MAPs) Species disappearance/extinct (plants and/or wildlife) Increased no. in invasive species/number Decline in natural floras and faunas (name species) Increase in land slide and erosion (size??) Early flowering and ripening of major species Migration of species Increasing trend of conifers/broadleaf species Appearance of new species Decline in grazing areas ……………. decline in water level (ground water?) drying of natural water source (drinking water) reduction in supply of irrigation water shortage of drinking water rainfall period increase incidence of human diseases decrease in no. of working days (efficiency) due to unfavourable weathers destruction/damage to water canals (Kulos, Nahars) Drying of artificial tube wells/pokharis (no of days) loss of traditional energy source structure damage due to flood , landslide, erosion to energy infrastructure Destruction of Public roads; offices, hospitals, schools, houses Destruction of Private infrastructure (houses, death of animals) Adaptation through awareness raising Adaptation through forest plantation Adaptation through community-based forest 3 management Adaptation through mobilization of local funds Adaptation through external support Adaptation through enhanced income generating activities Enhanced through livelihood diversifications including collection of NTFPs Adaptation through embankment construction Adaptation through alternative energy 3 Adaptation through forest management includes fire line construction, regular silvicultural operation, tending and cultural operation like weeding, singling, thinning, pruning which ultimately maintain the forest health. 14 SN 10 a b c d e Themes/ Broad Category Variables/Categories Adaptation through participatory irrigation management Adaptation through crop diversification/cropping pattern change Adaptation plan (CAPA) with budget estimation Awareness Total number of targeted HHs in CF for the awareness campaign/program on campaign/sensitization programs the climate change Total number of targeted Vulnerable HHs in CF for the skill among the people and capacity development programs Total estimated budget allocated for awareness programs (NRs) Budget share of the CF for awareness programs (NRs) Nursery raising and Total number of targeted HHs in CF from the plantation seedling production and programs plantation of climate Total number of targeted Vulnerable HHs in CF from the adaptive and threat plantation programs resistant species Total estimated budget allocated for plantation programs (NRs) Total estimated budget to be contributed from CF for plantation programs (NRs) Forest management Total number of targeted HHs to be involved in CF under programs the Adaptive forest management programs Total number of targeted Vulnerable HHs in CF for the training and capacity building in adaptive forest management programs (AFMP) Total estimated budget allocated for AFMP (NRs) Total estimated budget to be contributed from CF for AFMP (NRs) Community mobilization Total number of targeted HHs in CF from the Mobilizing the for dealing with emergency and revolving funds among the members emergency response Total number of targeted Vulnerable HHs in CF from the (e.g., fire) and revolving Mobilizing the emergency and revolving funds among the funds management members Total estimated budget allocated for the Mobilizing the emergency and revolving funds among the members (NRs) Total estimated budget to be contributed from CF for the Mobilizing the emergency and revolving funds among the members (NRs) Income generating Total number of targeted HHs in CF to be involved in the programs income generating programs such as NTFP management Total number of targeted Vulnerable HHs to be involved in the income generating programs such as NTFP management Total estimated budget allocated for income generating programs (NRs) Total estimated budget to be contributed from CF for 15 SN Themes/ Broad Category Variables/Categories income generating programs (NRs) f Construction embankment/bio engineering g h i j 11 12 of Total number of targeted HHs in CF from the construction of embankment/bio engineering Total number of targeted Vulnerable HHs in CF from construction of embankment/bio engineering Total estimated budget allocated for construction of embankment/bio engineering (NRs) Total estimated budget to be contributed from CF for construction of embankment/bio engineering (NRs) Development/promotion Total number of targeted HHs in CF from the of alternative energy development/promotion of alternative energy Total number of targeted Vulnerable HHs in CF from development/promotion of alternative energy Total estimated budget allocated for development/promotion of alternative energy (NRs) Total estimated budget to be contributed from CF for development/promotion of alternative energy (NRs) Irrigation and drinking Total number of targeted HHs in CF from the irrigation water services Total number of targeted Vulnerable HHs in CF from irrigation Total estimated budget allocated for irrigation (NRs) Total estimated budget to be contributed from CF for irrigation (NRs) Diversification of Crops Total number of targeted HHs in CF from the crop diversification Total number of targeted Vulnerable HHs in CF from crop diversification Total estimated budget allocated for crop diversification (NRs) Total estimated budget to be contributed from CF for crop diversification (NRs) Program relate to total number of targeted HH for health related activities human health total number of Vulnerable HH for health related activities Total estimated budget Total budget to be contributed by CFUG Institutions Total number of CBOs Total number of local NGOs Total number of Government organizations Gender Number of women involved in plan preparation Number of women sensitized by CAPA activities 16 PART THREE: REVIEW OF CLIMATE RELATED POLICY DOCUMENTS This section provides the comparative analysis of Climate Change related policies and the degree to which these policies address the communities' adaptation initiatives. 3.1 National Adaptation Programmes of Action 2010 (NAPA) Nepal prepared its NAPA in 2010 with the objective of assessing and prioritizing climate change vulnerabilities and identifying adaptation measures; developing proposals for priority activities; preparing, reviewing and finalizing NAPA focus areas; developing and maintaining a knowledge management and learning platform; and developing a multistakeholder framework of action on climate change. The NAPA report consists of the summary of eight independent reports prepared by six thematic working groups (forests and biodiversity, agriculture and food security, public health, water resources and energy, urban settlement, and infrastructures and climate induced disaster) and two cross cutting groups (livelihoods & governance and gender & social inclusion). NAPA identifies and classifies more than 250 adaptation activities and prioritized into nine integrated activity packages focusing in 6 major themes. The following four amongst the nine prioritized activities envisaged are community focused: promoting community based adaptation; building and enhancing capacity of vulnerable communities; community based disaster management for facilitating climate change; and empowering vulnerable communities through sustainable management of water resources and clean energy supply (climate proofing forest and agriculture in terms of smart agri. & forest need to be included) . NAPA aims to promote community-based adaptation through integrated management of agriculture, water, forest and biodiversity resources and by building and enhancing adaptive capacity of vulnerable communities through improved system and access to service for agricultural development; forest and ecosystem management thus supporting climate-led adaptation and system innovations; and empowering vulnerable communities through sustainable management of water resource and promotion of clean energy supply. NAPA lacks explicit provisions for the rights and responsibilities and a clear mechanism of participation by local communities' representatives in decision making especially in forestry and water sectors, including in policy shaping process at local level. Despite the fact that the level of local participation was minimal during preparation phase, community level organizations were identified as the prime beneficiaries of the total budget. One of the strongest positive elements of NAPA is the recognition of the need of having Local Adaptation Plan of Action (LAPA). 17 3.2 Climate Change Policy, 2011 Nepal's Climate Change Policy (2011) originated from United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) for which Nepal is a signatory; and Kyoto Protocol, which was ratified by Nepal in 2005. The Climate Change Policy is prepared to confront the approaching adverse impacts of Climate Change. Main goal of this policy is to improve livelihoods by mitigating and adapting to the adverse impacts of climate change, adopting low-carbon emissions, socio-economic development path and supporting and collaborating in the spirits of country’s commitments to national and international agreements related to climate change. Out of seven objectives, following two are in line with the adaptation plans and enhancing the adaptive capacity of local communities: implementation of adaptation related programmes and mitigating adverse impacts; enhance the climate adaptation and resilience capacity of local communities for optimum utilization of natural resources and their efficient management. Similarly one of the goals of CC policy is to initiate community-based local adaptation actions as mentioned in the NAPA by managing financial resources. At the same time, policy document also mentions the LAPA, which recognizes planning at local government level and roles and responsibilities of the local communities. It also prioritizes sustainable forestry. The policy identifies local communities as the stakeholders and earmarks up to 80% of the climate funds for the local communities, but it fails to provide details on how to work with the communities. The communities are regarded as passive beneficiaries instead of active partners in development. Clearly defined roles, rights, and responsibilities of the communities in the policy documents would have empowered local communities as active partners of development. 3.3 National Framework for Local Adaptation Plans of Action, 2011 (LAPA) National Framework for Local Adaptation Plan for Action (LAPA) was prepared with the twin objectives of implementing adaptation actions, and integrating climate change into local development planning and implementation. LAPA is expected to be more specific and effective in terms of design and implementation of local level adaptation activities. LAPA framework ensures that the process of integrating climate change resilience into local-tonational planning is bottom-up, inclusive, responsive and flexible. LAPA framework helps to identify the most climate vulnerable VDCs, wards, and people and their adaptation needs and options; prepare adoptable adaptation options so that local communities can make prioritization decisions; prepare and integrate adaptation plans into local and national level planning and according to Local Self Governance Act. By reviewing these policy documents, it can be concluded that Nepal’s climate change policy, programmes, and plans are still in the beginning phases and need to be developed further with strong institutional commitment to implement these policies (Helvetas 2011). 18 19 PART FOUR: FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS This part is divided into three major sections. First section gives the overview of CAPA preparation process. Second section analyzes the contents of CAPA of Tarai and third section analyzes CAPA and LAPA prepared at hilly districts respectively. Each three section is further divided into sub sections as per the requirement. 4.1 Analyzing CAPA and LAPA Preparation Process The CAPA preparation process started with awareness creation, followed by capacity building of communities and local stakeholders, then vulnerability assessment and mapping with the active participation of local communities and then adaptation plan preparation (table 2 presents the list of 13 tools used to prepare the adaptation plans). The prepared plans; after endorsed by VDC council; were integrated with VDC level plans and finally with DDC level planning process. Afterwards, adaptation plan was implemented with the help of budget allocated from CBOs, NGOs, line agencies, VDC and DDC along with the budget of communities. At the final stage of adaptation planning process, monitoring of the accomplished task was done and evaluated on the basis of its efficiency (Figure 1). Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4 Step 5 •Awareness and sensitization on climate change adaptation •Capacity building of local communities •Vulnerability assessment and mapping •Preparation of adaptation plans at community forestry level •Integration of adaptation plans with existing planning system Step 6 •Implementation of Adaptation Plan (Technology transfer and supporting mechanism) Step 7 •Monitoring and Evaluation •Dissemination Figure 2: Community Based Adaptation Plan Preparation Process (Adopted from Rupantaran Nepal) Few important attributes of reviewed CAPA were: Instead of formulating new groups, CFUGs, VFCC and VDC were used to prepare the reviewed CAPA because these mechanisms are dynamic and flexible enough that can respond to uncertainty and work across different scales. Climate sensitive criteria and indicators were added to existing Participatory Well Being Ranking to identify the poor and climate vulnerable communities. 20 Despite the plan was prepared at community forestry level, all other stakeholders (agriculture, health, water, livestock, VDC council, CBOs, education, political parties, etc) were invited during planning process. All the reviewed LAPA follow the process and tools that was adopted by CAPA, the difference being the institutional homes. CAPA were prepared at CFUG level whereas most of the reviewed LAPA were prepared by VFCC. Therefore there is substantial difference between the reviewed LAPA and National Framework for LAPA prepared by government. 4.1.1 Participation It was observed that participatory, inclusive and gender sensitive approach was followed during adaptation plan development and implementation process. The process involved wide range of stakeholders such as local communities (especially most vulnerable segments), local government offices and service centres, government line agencies, local representatives from political parties, civil societies, CBOs and private sectors. Wider participation ensures ownership of all stakeholders on the plan resulting to the successful implementation of the plan. 4.1.2 Tools Community and local adaptation plans prepared with the support of LFP and IFP follows “Participatory Tools and Techniques for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Exploring Adaptation Options” published by UKaid and LFP in 2010. It helps communities and planners to understand the climate change hazards and risks and analyse the methods of coping and adapting and then develop adaptation plans to increase resilience. It also helps CBOs (CFUGs, water management groups, PILMG, soil conservation groups) to analyse the methods of coping and adapting and then develop adaptation plans to increase resilience. A total of 13 different tools have been incorporated in the toolkit that helps to prepare adaptation plans (table 2). Table 2: Set of 13 tools and their objectives for CAPA preparation Tool 1 2 3 4 5 6 Name Climatic Hazard Mapping Climatic Hazard Trend Analysis Climatic Hazard Ranking Climatic Hazard Impact Assessment Livelihood Resources Assessment Livelihood Resource Vulnerability Assessment Objectives Map the local climatic hazards and assess their risk. Gain insight into past climatic hazards and identify trends in their nature. Compare and prioritise the most critical local climatic hazards. Identify the most likely impacts of local climatic hazards. Identify and categorise local livelihood assets and resources. Assess the intensity of impacts of climatic hazards on livelihood resources 21 7 8. Assessing Climatic Hazard Impacts on Livelihoods Vulnerability Assessment 9. Vulnerability matrix 10. Coping and Adaptation strategies Assessment 11. Assessing the Effectiveness of Coping and Adaptation Strategies Mapping Adaptation Partnerships Community Based Adaptation Planning 12. 13. Compare and Contrast the impacts of major climatic hazards on livelihoods of the community. Differentiate vulnerability to climatic hazards across different sectors and social groups, and Identify the most vulnerable people and groups within a community and the most vulnerable sectors. Gain an overview and quantify climatic hazard risk and resilience capacity of local communities. Identify and assess the effectiveness of the current coping mechanisms practiced by communities to secure and improve their livelihoods and conserve ecosystem biodiversity in the context of climate change. Analyse the effectiveness of existing coping and adaptation strategies against the severity of climatic hazards. Explore the institutional context in which the community operates and identify appropriate institutional partners for adaptation. Develop urgent and immediate short term and long term adaptation priorities for district, regional and national level planning, and Develop community level plans of action which will help them become more resilient to effect of climate change. 4.1.3 Time required to prepare adaptation plans Time required in preparing CAPA and LAPA depends on the knowledge and capacity of facilitator and communities understanding on climate change issues. At least three working days is required to prepare CAPA and four working days is required to prepare VDC level LAPA. Communities have to be sensitized first, and then above mentioned tools are consecutively administered to prepare the adaptation plan. 4.2 CAPA Prepared at Tarai 4.2.1 Involvement of CFs in the preparation of CAPA A total of 96 CAPA prepared by CFUGs at Rupandehi, Kapilbastu and Nawalparasi districts were reviewed during the analysis (Figure 3). Name and location of CFs, major threats, adaptation options etc is given in annex 1. 22 Kapilbastu 35% Rupandehi 42% Nawalparasi 23% Figure 3: Reviewed CAPA as per the district 4.2.2 Analysis of threats in Tarai districts The major climate induced threats documented in CAPA prepared at three Tarai districts were flood and river cutting, fire, drought, cold wave, storms, diseases to human and livestock, decline in agricultural productivity and spreading of invasive species (table 3, figure 4). River bank erosion and flooding was identified as the major threat in majority of CAPA analyzed (75 out of 96 CAPA). Nepal has been experiencing a consistent and continuous increase in temperature at an annual rate of 0.06oC which is more prominent in mountains and high hills rather than in Tarai (MoEnv 2010). Increased temperature causes melting of snow at an alarming rate which triggers the landslide and soil erosion in the hilly regions and flood and water logging in the lower flatlands of Tarai. Flood and river cutting was identified as major climatic threats in 32 out of 40, 19 out of 22 and 24 out of 34 CAPA prepared at Rupendehi, Nawalparasi and Kapilbastu respectively. Percentage 78.13 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 63.54 62.50 13.54 10.42 10.42 9.38 3.13 Flood/River Cutting Fire Drought Cold wave Storm Disease Decline Agriculture Invasive Spps Identifed climatic threats Figure 4: Identification of major climatic threats of Western Tarai (Nawalparasi, Rupendehi, Kapilbastu) Likewise, forest fire and fire at villages and agricultural fields and drought were identified as frequent climatic threats encountered in Tarai region. Rise in temperature and scarce winter rain (due to impact of climate change) results the drought which has become more and more prominent during April-May. These factors, together with anthropogenic causes trigger fire both in forest and in the villages. Along with forest fire, drought results springs 23 and water sources to shrink and disappear and pose direct threat to livelihoods and agriculture. Consequently, women have to go far and spend much time in search of water. Spreading of invasive species was reported in few of the CAPA analyzed (3 out of 96). Superficially, it refer that spreading of invasive species was not the major threat among the analyzed CAPA. Having said so, it cannot be said that CAPA ruled out invasive species as major threat. Involvement of different organizations during CAPA preparation, knowledge of facilitator and their facilitation skills, and specific geographical conditions are responsible for the identification and prioritization of threats. The latter statement can be verified from the fact that Mikania micrantha (Eng: Mile-a-minute) is the most outspread invasive species of Tarai region that invade on Shorea robusta (Nepali: Sal) forest. 9 out of 96 CAPA identified decline in agricultural productivity as climatic threat. This data, however, did not refer that prioritization did not identify agricultural productivity decline as major threat. It simply shows that few of the CAPA raise the agricultural productivity decline issue. Communities who prepare these 9 CAPA might have more agricultural land and they perceive decline as major threat. Reasons for other CAPA not to address agricultural productivity decline issue might be due to lack of their experience, inadequate exposure with the issue, and they might have limited information and knowledge to report the issue. Likewise, cold wave, storm and disease on human and livestock are also identified as major climatic threat in some CAPA. Adaptation plans prepared in the Tarai regions should give emphasize on activities that resist cold wave and storm so that the plans are resilient to such climatic hazards. It was observed that none of the analyzed CAPA had reported water related issues as major climatic threats. Drying out of springs and other water sources along with other threats have to be addressed in CAPA. Other additional risks associated with impacts of climate change (not identified in CAPA) were erratic rainfall, deterioration of soil quality, increased incident of flash flood, habitat shrinkage (for wildlife) etc. 4.2.3 Causes of GHG Emission in Tarai region Forest fire is frequently cited in majority of CAPA (63 out of 96) as the major cause of GHG emission. Similarly, other causes of GHG as cited in CAPA are unscientific livestock rearing practices i.e. without proper sheds and without solid waste management (livestock droppings are the major cause of Methane emission), followed by increased fuel wood consumption, forest degradation, use of chemical fertilizers, unsustainable management of solid waste and shifting cultivation (Figure 5). Similarly, few CAPA have also identified vehicle and industrial emission as source of GHGs. The national inventory of GHG in Nepal covers five major sectors— energy activities, industrial processes, agriculture, land use change and forestry, and wastes. Land use change and forest degradation and deforestation is the main source of Co2 emission followed by transportation, industry, agriculture including livestock and fuel wood/biomass burning for methane and nitrus oxide. Although CO2 is the predominant GHG in terms of emission volume, the importance of CH4 and N2O 24 is much higher in terms of global warming potential. So the information given in the table below needs to be checked/updated with the latest (second NCI report of the MOSTE) 70 65.63 Percentage 60 44.79 50 33.33 40 27.08 30 20.83 17.71 20 3.13 10 0 Forest Fire Likestock Fuel Wood Forest Degredation Fertilizer Solid Waste Shifting Cultivation Causes of GHG Emission Figure 5: Causes of GHG emission as identified in Tarai CAPA 4.2.4 Adaptation Interventions Adaptation activities as identified by CAPA prepared at three Tarai districts were awareness, embankment, plantation, fire line construction, water and forest management, diversification of crops and alternative energy (Figure 6). Majority of CAPAs (75 out of 96) identified awareness to climate change as one of the adaption options. Climate change adaptation awareness and sensitisation amongst the communities, development workers, stakeholders, politicians, journalist and civil society helps them to become resilient. Awareness programme is also effective in improving the communities' understanding to the CC and to develop adaptation strategies at local level. 78.13 66.67 70 Percentage Identified Adaptation Interventions 77.08 80 60 45.83 50 34.38 40 30 17.71 20 12.50 11.46 10 0 Awarness Embankment Plantation Fireline Cons Water Mgmt Forest Mgmt Crop Diversification Alternative Energy Figure 6: Identification of adaptation interventions Likewise, embankment using the bamboos and sand sacs is an effective and efficient locally adopted method to control river cutting, especially in the lower flatlands. Doubtful? Conversion of bare or cultivated land into forest by plantation was identified as one of the options to deal with climate change issue. Plantation not only provides clean air to breathe 25 but also helps to sequestrate carbon and helps to maintain the ecosystem. An extensive reforestation campaign and forest management practice is needed to convert the barren lands to forest for environment and economy. Fire line construction is also identified as means of adaptation against forest fire. Scientific forest management that focuses on effective fire line helped to conserve forests in several CFUGs. Similarly management of water for drinking purposes, personal hygiene and for irrigation is identified as adaption option in few CAPAs. Likewise, use of alternative energy and crop diversification is also identified as means of adaptation. The adaptation options listed above are based on risk and vulnerability context and local people's perception. By analyzing the adaptation options identified in 96 CAPAs, it cannot be said that those listed options are effective. Their effectiveness should be evaluated when these options are tested and implemented in the field. Similarly, adaptation strategies adapted by few CAPAs (such as forest management, crop diversification and use of alternative energy) does not mean they are less effective. Since CAPAs are prepared by different NGOs, the trend shows that there is an influence and uniformity in the identification of adaptation priorities. 4.2.5 Effectiveness of Adaptation Options in Tarai Awareness and embankment are effective and efficient adaptation interventions and have scientific basis. It is well understood fact that inadequate awareness restricts communities to get better preparedness against climate induced hazards. Similarly, river cutting is the prominent issue of Tarai and embankment is the identified mitigation measure. Tarai region have limited forests therefore forest management, fire line construction and plantation are not as effective as in the hilly regions. Similarly, crop diversification is an important issue (especially for Tarai region) but it was not raised as important issue in most of the CAPAs. Likewise, alternative energy is an effective technology to reduce the GHG emission but it was addressed in very few CAPAs. Therefore, it can be concluded that some of the adaptation activities are proposed in ad hoc manner by the facilitators. In few instances, views and working areas of NGO determines the adaptation options rather than based on the actual needs. 4.2.6 Interrelationship of threats and causes of GHG with adaptation activities This part will analyze the interrelationship of climatic threats and causes of GHG emission with identified adaptation activities. Threats versus Adaptation Activities Flood and river cutting was the major climatic threat identified in most CAPAs and embankment was identified as one of the adaptation interventions in the CAPA analyzed. Similarly, fire line construction was adaptation activities identified against the forest fire. 26 Climatic threat in the form of drought was addressed via water management, decline in agriculture was addressed via crop diversification and spreading of invasive species was addressed via forest management. Gaps: Cold wave, storm and diseases (to human and livestock) were the identified climatic threats but the prepared adaptation plan fails to identify adaptation activities to address these issues. The plan addresses forest fire but fails to address adaptation activities against village fire (such as purchase of fire fighting equipments). It can be said that awareness can address diseases to human and livestock to some extent but awareness alone is not enough and health related activities (health camps, health posts, livestock service centres) should be carried out. Opportunities: The adaptation plan was very much near to the reality in terms of addressing the climatic threats. Awareness campaign can address threats like storm, cold wave, diseases to human and livestock, and village fire to some extent. Core adaptation activities (such as health camps, establishment of service centres) needs to be carried out to adequately address these issues, along with awareness. Causes of GHG emission versus Adaptation Activities Forest fire was identified as major cause of GHG emission and fire line construction was the identified adaptation activities. Similarly, forest degradation was addressed by forest management and shifting cultivation was addressed under crop diversification. Most importantly, fuel wood consumption was identified as cause of emission and in few CAPAs, use of alternative energy is identified as adaptation interventions. Gaps: This analysis showed that adaptation activities do not adequately address the activities to reduce the GHG emission. Livestock dung and solid waste management is relatively easy and should have to be addressed by adaptation activities. Similarly, use of compost manure and shifting to organic fertilizer can help to reduce the GHG emission, which is not adequately addressed. Opportunities: Adaptation plan should properly address the activities to reduce the GHG emission, which can be done by identifying the causes and preparing adaptation activities accordingly. Local measures to adapt against these causes should be identified and listed, which are generally efficient and cost effective. 4.2.7 Estimated Budget of the Plan and Beneficiaries Budget for each identified adaptation activities were prepared in each CAPA analyzed. All 96 CAPA were prepared in similar way therefore activities are mostly repeated in the analyzed CAPA. The study reveals that highest amount of budget is required for embankment/bio engineering in CFs of all three districts. The total budget required for the implementation of a CAPA is NRs 1,30,429 with the contribution from coordination committee of Rs 25,626 as shown in the table 3. Details of budget sheet of each district are given in annex 2-4. 27 Table 3: Budget Allocation per community for Adaptation Plan (In NPR) Adaptation Activities Awareness Plantation Forest Management Mobilization of Emergency and Revolving Fund Embankment/bio engineering Development/promotio n of alternative energy Kapilbastu Nawalparasi Rupandehi Contribution from CF 4982.14 4981.25 3743.59 4400 Contribution from Coordination Committee 7910.71 3312.5 2705.13 4578.31 Sub Total 12892.85 8293.75 6448.72 8978.31 Contribution from CF 34548.39 11117.65 8882.35 19048.78 Contribution from Coordination Committee 32741.94 2588.24 720.59 13213.41 Sub Total 67290.33 13705.89 9602.94 32262.19 Contribution from CF 15485.19 9031.25 9250 12247.27 Contribution from Coordination Committee 19903.85 562.5 166.67 9787.04 Sub Total 35389.04 9593.75 9416.67 22034.31 15000 10181.82 11214.29 Contribution from Coordination Committee 15666.67 1272.73 4357.14 Sub Total 30666.67 11454.55 15571.43 Contribution from CF 109342.1 29923.81 31291.67 54014.06 Contribution from Coordination Committee 92447.37 19952.38 4729.17 35765.63 Sub Total 201789.5 49876.19 36020.84 89779.69 9857.14 7750 7722.22 8585.71 191142.9 9016.67 24444.44 85834.29 201000 16766.67 32166.66 94420 76250 36461.54 36333.33 53184.21 Contribution from Coordination Committee 140625 16730.77 111.11 64960.53 Sub Total 216875 53192.31 36444.44 118144.7 20750 4666.67 16363.64 8750 6333.33 8090.91 29500 11000 24454.55 Contribution from CF Contribution from CF Contribution from Coordination Committee Sub Total Irrigation Crop Diversification Contribution from CF Contribution from CF Contribution from Coordination Committee Sub Total Total budget Contribution from CF Contribution from Coordination Committee Grand Total 28 Total 121500 89961.11 107988.3 104802.9 18750 31738.89 5060.396 25626.4 140250 121700 113048.7 130429.4 The review shows that average targeted household per CF is 147 with 68 households of targeted vulnerable communities (table 4). Table 4: Beneficiaries from the adaptation activities Adaptation Activities Awareness Plantation Forest management programs Mobilization of energy and revolving fund Embankment/ Bio engineering Development and promotion of alternative energy Irrigation and drinking water Crop diversification Miscellaneous Summar y statistics Average Min Max Total number of targeted HHs in CF Average Min Max Mean 292 20 2527 223 114 8 1115 182 Min Max Average 20 2527 151 10 5000 62 Min Max Average 10 495 225 10 216 108 Min Max Average Min Max Average Min Max Average Min Max Average Min Max 10 2200 98 3 750 154 19 533 10 728 155 147 8 500 8 1500 56 2 550 55 5 200 10 299 64 68 3 257 4.3 CAPA Prepared in hilly districts 4.3.1 Physical and Sociological characteristics Number of CAPA and LAPA analyzed 29 281 12 60000 Total number of CC vulnerable HHs in CF 120 12 2527 A total of 420 LAPA and CAPA were reviewed and analyzed, out of which 276 were CAPA and remaining 146 were LAPA. All the reviewed CAPA (prepared at 12 hilly districts) were prepared by CFUG in CF level whereas most of the LAPA were prepared by VFCC at VDC level (Figure 7). It was observed that exactly similar process was followed during CAPA and LAPA preparation (as given in part 4.1- review of CAPA and LAPA preparation process) with almost similar variables. Therefore both CAPA and LAPA were analyzed using the same format. 146 274 CAPA LAPA Figure 7: CAPA and LAPA prepared in Hilly districts Adaptation plans as per the districts Number of Adaptation plans A total of 420 adaptation plans4 were analyzed in the 12 hilly districts. Adaptation plans prepared at Bhojpur, Tehrathum, Sankhuasabha and Dhakuta is the reflection of eastern hills; adaptation plans prepared at Baglung, Myagdi and Parbat is a reflection of western hills and adaptation plans prepared at Rukum, Rolpa, Salyan, Pyuthan and Dang is a reflection of mid western hills. Out of the 12 districts, LAPA was prepared at Bhojpur, Tehrathum, Sankhuasabha, Dhakuta and Rukum whereas CAPA (with very few LAPA) was prepared at remaining seven districts. In this review, 138 CAPA prepared at Parbat was analyzed, followed by 60 CAPA prepared at Myagdi (table 8). 4 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 138 60 56 36 31 27 26 16 13 8 6 From now and onwards, adaptation plans; unless otherwise stated; collectively refers CAPA and LAPA 30 3 Figure 8: Adaptation plans analyzed as per the districts Altitudinal Distribution 347 out of 420 adaptation plans have mentioned the altitudes, out of which 67% adaptation plans are prepared below 2000m and 33% adaptation plans are prepared above 2000m. Settlements in the hilly regions are concentrated below 2000m and consequently CFs lies in the vicinity of settlements (Figure 9). below 2000 67% above 2000 33% Figure 9: Altitudinal distribution CAPA and LAPA Households Number of Adaptation plans Out of 274 CAPA analyzed, 43 CAPA have users less than 50 households, 121 CAPA have users between 50 and 150 households, 93 CAPA have users between 500 and 1000 households and only one CAPA have users more than 1000 households. Likewise, one VDC level LAPA have households within 50 and 150. A total of 82 analyzed LAPA have the users between 500 and 1000 (Figure 10). 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 121 93 43 82 CAPA 29 10 1 Below 50 50-150 150-500 500-1000 23 LAPA 1 Above 1000 Number of Households Figure 10: Number of Households covered by CAPA and LAPA Livelihood Options 320 out of 420 adaptation plans have mentioned the livelihood options. Agriculture and labour foreign employment was identified as major source of income by 115 adaptation 31 Percentage plans, followed by agriculture (100 adaptation plans) and then agriculture wage labour (63 adaptation plans). Figure 11 give the percentage of each of the livelihood options within the analyzed adaptation plans. 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 35.9 31.3 19.7 10.9 2.2 Agriculture and labour foreign employment Agriculture Agriculture and wage labour Agriculture and foreign employment Foreign Employmenet Figure 11: Livelihood options as mentioned in CAPA and LAPA 4.3.2 Chronological Analysis of Threats Chronological analysis of threats showed that climate induced disasters in the form of flood/landslides/erosion, drought, fire, hailstone, diseases, drying of springs and forest degradations were more prominent after 2050. Out of the 420 adaptation plans analyzed, the incident of flood/landslides/erosion after 2050 was recorded in 256 adaptation plans. However, frequency of flood/landslides/erosion was less within 2030-2050 (180 out of 420 adaptation plans) and was minimal before 2030 (recorded in only 67 adaptation plans). Likewise, climate induced disaster in the form of drought after 2050 was recorded from 294 adaptation plans (Figure 12). There should be two reasons about the outcomes. Most evident reason is the impact of climate change that triggers climate induced disasters in recently years. Secondly, communities remember recent incidents but past incidents are not easy to remember therefore there are more chances of missing these information. Before 2030 256 2030-2050 After 2050 294 239 158 180 123 67 124 76 74 37 Landslide Drought 15 Fire 129 140 23 26 7 Hailstone Snowfall 37 5 Storm 54 26 51 37 25 Diseases Food Crisis Figure 12: Chronological threats of CAPA and LAPA (count) n=420 32 156 46 7 Spring Drying 118 76 67 14 3 22 Inv. Forest deg Species 4.3.3 Sectorial Impacts Impact of Climate Change in Agriculture Number of Adaptation Plans Decline in agricultural productivity was recorded from 406 adaptation plans. Similarly, increased incidents of pests and disease were recorded from 310 adaptation plans. Decline in soil fertility was recorded from 306 adaptation plans (Picture 13). The revision showed that records of loss of local breeds and early flowering, fruiting and ripening was least recorded in the analyzed adaptation plans. 450 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 406 310 306 43 Dec in Productivity Inc. in pest and Dec in Soil fertility Disease 18 Loss of local breeds Early flowering/ripening Figure 13: Impact of Climate Change in Agriculture (count) Impact of Climate Change in Forests and Biodiversity Number of Adaptation Plans The impact of climate change is visible in forests and biodiversity sector with decline in flora and fauna, outbreak of invasive species, increased incidents of forest fire, increased incidents of landslides and erosion and early flowering. There are still other impacts such as morphological change, habitat shrinkage but these are not mentioned in the adaptation plans. Decline in wild flora and fauna was recorded from 336 adaptation plans. Similarly invasive or alien species was recorded from 323 adaptation plans (Figure 14). Early flowering was recorded from only 12 adaptation plans. 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 336 323 250 180 12 Dec in flora/fauna Invasive species Inc Forest fire Figure 14: Impact of Climate Change in Forests and Biodiversity 33 Inc Landslides Early Flowering Impact of Climate Change in water Number of Adaptation plans The most prominent and visible impact of climate change in water is decrease in water source and drying off of springs. 345 out of 420 adaptation plans have indicated the decrease in water source. Likewise, 301 adaptation plants have mentioned the lack of water for all purposes. Decline in water level was recorded in 291 adaptation plans (Figure 15). Erratic rainfall, however was recorded from only 32 adaptation plans. Water sources in the hilly areas are shrinking at fast pace due to increased drought incidents and erratic rainfall. Use of chemical fertilizers to increase agricultural productivity leads to deterioration of soil quality and consequently loses water holding capacity. Similarly, clearing of forests decreased the water holding capacity of forests. 400 345 301 291 300 200 100 32 0 Decrease source Inadequate source Decline level Erratic rainfall Figure 15: Impact of Climate Change in Water Impact of Climate Change on Human Health Impact on human health in the form of introduction of tropical diseases (like malaria) and headaches are recorded from 372 adaptation plans. Impact of Climate Change on Energy Impact of climate change on sources of energy was visualized by lost in traditional energy sources (water mills), decreased quantity of water for energy production (micro-hydro, Peltirc set) and structural damage (destruction of canals). Impact of Climate Change on Infrastructure The most evident impact of climate change is the impact on infrastructures such as bridges, roads, trials, houses, schools, water storage tanks etc. Destruction of public infrastructures was recorded from 246 adaptation plans whereas destruction of private properties was recorded from 228 adaptation plans. 4.3.4 Adaptation Interventions Adaptation activities as identified by CAPA and LAPA prepared at hilly districts were irrigation/drinking water, plantation, awareness, awareness creation, fund mobilization, forest management (silvicultural practices, forest cleaning, fire line construction etc), 34 income generation activities, alternative energy, embankment and crop diversification (Figure 16). Most of the adaptation plans (366 out of 420) identified the management of water for drinking purpose and irrigation as one of the adaptation options. Most of the plan address the water related issues and allocate budget accordingly. Plantation was identified as another adaptation intervention against CC impacts. An extensive reforestation campaign is needed to convert the barren lands to forest for environment and economy. Majority of CAPAs (362 out of 420) identified awareness to climate change as one of the adaption options. Number of Adaptation plans 400 366 364 362 319 350 318 302 300 271 250 241 217 200 150 100 50 0 Water source Plantation Awarness Fund Mobiliation Forest Mgmt IGA Alt. Energy Embankment Crop Diversification Figure 16: Identification of adaptation interventions (count) n=420 Mobilization of adaptation and emergency funds (established in the adaptation plans) was another identified adaptation interventions in 319 adaptation plans. Adaptation and emergency fund is most effective adaptation means as it provides immediate support to the affected households. Similarly, forest management via fire line construction and silvicultural practices are identified as means of adaptation. Other adaptation interventions are income generating activities, use of alternative energy (solar, electricity, wind mills), embankment and crop diversification. The adaptation options listed above are based on risk and vulnerability context and local people's perception. By analyzing the adaptation options identified in 420 adaptation plans, it cannot be said that those listed options are effective. Their effectiveness should be evaluated when these options are tested and implemented in the field. Similarly, adaptation strategies adapted by few adaptation plans (such as embankment, use of alternative energy, crop diversification) does not mean they are less effective. Since adaptation plans are prepared by different NGOs, the trend shows that there is sectoral influence towards the identification of adaptation priorities. 35 4.3.5 Effectiveness of Adaptation Options in hilly districts Climate change has profound impact on fresh water resources. Severe drought, deforestation and decrease in the duration of precipitation have caused water sources to shrink and decrease the water flow. Decrease in water sources is evident throughout Nepal and rest of the world. Therefore management of water sources is the best adaptation options. However, activities under water management are not well illustrated in most of the adaptation plans. Few plans have listed activities like multiple uses of water, drip irrigation and river bank cultivation as means of adaptation. Establishment of adaptation and emergency funds are newer concept yet very effective against all types of climatic hazards. These funds provide immediate relief to the communities and households that need immediate support. Management of capital for these adaptation funds is a matter of concern. But most of the communities have allocated some amount to establish adaption and emergency fund. 4.3.6 Interrelationship between threats and adaptation activities Landslides/erosion/flood was the major climatic threat identified and subsequently embankment, plantation and forest management was identified as adaptation interventions in the in most of the analyzed CAPA and LAPA. Similarly, drought and fire was identified as one of the impacts of climate change and water conservation and management was identified as viable adaptation options. Explicit adaptation interventions against snowfall and storms are not mentioned in any of the plans. But establishment of adaptation and emergency fund can help communities who are affected by these impacts. Gaps: It can be said that awareness can address diseases to human and livestock to some extent but awareness alone is not enough and health related activities (health camps, health posts, livestock service centres) should be carried out. Opportunities: The adaptation plan was very much near to the reality in terms of addressing the climatic threats. Core adaptation activities (such as health camps, establishment of service centres) needs to be carried out to adequately address these issues, along with awareness. 4.3.7 Estimated Budget of the Plan Table 5 presents the allocated budget for each adaptation interventions in the context of CAPA and LAPA. The study reveals that highest amount of budget is required for irrigation and drinking water related interventions for CAPA. A total of NRs 265844 is required to implement water related interventions in one CAPA. Likewise, LAPA allocate average of NRs 401690 for crop diversification (per LAPA). Table 5: Comparative cost to implement CAPA and LAPA (NRs) 36 Activities Contribution from Awareness CF CAPA LAPA Average Plantation Forest Management Adaptation Fund IGA 9282 22233 Local Government 10208 32918 District stakeholder 21109 155877 Sub-total 40599 211028 CF 13933 32927 Local Government 17241 39276 District stakeholder 26979 142294 Sub-total 58153 214496 CF 28108 43404 Local Government 27925 64798 District stakeholder 39711 230458 Sub-total 95743 338660 CF 16473 34064 Local Government 21916 46353 District stakeholder 42562 190241 Sub-total 80951 270658 CF 33860 26662 Local Government 22775 31411 District stakeholder 65051 139170 Sub-total Embankment/Bio-engineering 121686 197243 CF 39847 23324 Local Government 54478 89758 District stakeholder 95021 195143 189347 308225 CF 29812 44571 Local Government 33746 47853 Sub-total Alternative Energy District stakeholder 54368 168420 117926 260844 CF 48925 24392 Local Government 80347 114579 District stakeholder 136572 207138 Sub-total 265844 346109 CF 15729 31800 Local Government 21691 149493 District stakeholder 37264 220396 Sub-total 74684 401690 CF 17601 20824 Local Government 17684 104389 District stakeholder 37974 221107 73259 346321 CF 26734 35588 Local Government 38632 63338 District stakeholder 60776 2500000 Sub-total Irrigation/Drinking water Crop Diversification Health Sub-total Miscellaneous 37 Sub-total 126142 2598926 4.4 Critical Assessment of CAPA and LAPA a. Most of the adaptation plans adequately addresses the climatic threats via adaptation interventions. There is a positive correlation between causes of GHG gases emission and adaption activities. The budgetary part is almost comprehensive and addresses all the prioritized adaptation activities. b. Analysis of 516 CAPA and LAPA revealed that there was sectoral biasness during plan preparation. In most of the CAPA and LAPA analyzed, influence of agriculture and forestry sector is high compared to other important sector such as water, energy, infrastructure and health. The organizations that facilitate to prepare adaptation plans first orient their staff or local resource persons and during the orientation, the strength (working area) of organizations is logical to influence LRPs and staffs. Level of exposure and enhanced understanding of CC issues to LRPs will help to reduce the sectoral biasness. c. The skills and knowledge of facilitator largely drives the adaptation plans. Despite the plan preparation follows “Participatory Tools and Techniques for Assessing Climate Change Impacts and Exploring Adaptation Options”, there are several shortcomings and in some instances, more than four critical steps were not considered during plan preparation. In some cases, the most evident impacts were not documented. For example spreading of invasive species was reported in few only three CAPA prepared at Tarai. However, it cannot be said that CAPA ruled out invasive species as major threat. Involvement of different organizations during CAPA preparation, knowledge of facilitator and their facilitation skills, and inadequate exposure to the issues is responsible for the identification and prioritization of threats. d. There are some cases where very few adaptation plans have raised the critical issues. It does not refer that prioritization did not identify these critical issues. For example, agricultural productivity decline issues were raised in few CAPAs prepared at Tarai. Communities who prepare these CAPAs might have more agricultural land and they perceive decline as major threat. Reasons for other CAPAs not to address agricultural productivity decline issue might be due to lack of their experience and they might have limited information and knowledge to report the issue. e. There are lots of similarities between the adaptation plans prepared in definite cluster or district. In some cases there was 100% duplication of plans, even up the budget level. f. Institutional mapping was very well developed and presented in the adaptation plans but very few plans are owned by these institutions. Ownership of other line agencies except VDC and District Forest Office is insufficient. Major responsibility of planned activities revolves round the development agencies with undefined roles and responsibilities. 38 g. Most of the adaptation activities represents a sector and can be integrated with the programs and activities of CBOs, NGOs and government line agencies but it is not well indicated in the plans. h. Active and meaningful participation of female and socially excluded groups is insufficient. Based on the available data and participant list, most of the participants were male and even ethnic composition was not found to be considered seriously. In an average one CAPA represents 140 households and 25-35 male and elite participants are involved in plan preparation process. i. The range of budget for different activity proposed was largely based on assumption, which might not be real in practical. Lump sum budget illustrated might not give the real budgetary required. j. Activities of some adaptation plans are more ambitious and further it is difficult to differentiate between development and adaptation activities. Activities like toilet construction, shed house construction, community building construction, road construction etc were incorporated in the plan. It is hard to differentiate whether they represents development or adaptation activities. k. Limited budget allocation for monitoring whereas none of the analyzed CAPA defined provision on monitoring mechanism: l. Less than 5% of the adaptation plans have mentioned the provision of monitoring and evaluation and allocated the budget for the same. But monitoring mechanism is not defined in any of the analyzed CAPA. m. Mobilization of emergency/revolving fund was not identified as adaptation activities but only listed in the budget sheet and plan in most of the adaptation plans. Inclusion of emergency/revolving fund is good initiative therefore future community based adaptation plan should identify emergency/revolving fund right from the initial phase. n. The CAPA identifies VFCC as the major source of funding but it is understood that VFCC have not adequate resources to support each of the activities. Without the support of other organizations, it is difficult to carry out activities that require big budget, such as embankment, irrigation etc. Similarly, commitment of VFCC for financial support is not is not explicitly mentioned in CAPA. CAPA identified different organizations for the technical support but commitment regarding the same is lacking. Finally, mechanism of funding should be ensured in the future plans. Provision of a clear cut monitoring mechanism should be in place in each CAPA. o. Most importantly, adaptation options listed in CAPA and LAPA are based on risk and vulnerability context and local people's perception. By analyzing the adaptation options identified in 516 adaptation plans, it cannot be said that those listed options are effective. Their effectiveness should be evaluated when these options are tested and implemented in the field. Therefore it is necessary to deploy a team to observe, monitor and verify these adaptation activities as per their effectiveness. 39 PART FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusion Mainstreaming climate change adaptation into local planning is a process of considering climate risks during development planning, and of adjusting approaches and actions to address those risks. Community preparedness and plan of action to cope with increasing climate change is crucial. Better plan guide for better action, thus assessment of community plan for the action helps to guide for further implementation. Analysis of 370 CAPAs and 146 LAPAs illustrated many dimension embedded with climate change adaptation. This review tries to explore the major climatic threats, their adaptation practices and plan with detail budget required and the amount to be contributed by different agency like VDC, CFUG, VFCC and district line agencies. Analysis shows that drought, river cutting, erosion, fire, flood and decrease in agricultural productivity are major perceived climatic. Communities have identified awareness, plantation, water resource management (for irrigation and drinking purpose), IGA, fund mobilization and alternative energy to cope against these climatic hazards. Most of the identified activities are genuine whereas some are highly ambitious and some are irrelevant to the adaptation. Budget assessment shows that higher costs are required for the water resource management, embankment and bio engineering. Fewer budgets are allocated for activities such as awareness, forest management, plantation, crop diversification, health etc. Budget required for adaptation activities is high compared to locally available resources therefore a gap between required budget and availability of budget. It is important that the prepared adaptation plans should be integrated with VDC or DDC planning process for its sustainability and stakeholders should own the plan. VDCs are fundamental political and administrative unit of the government, thus prepared LAPA and CAPA should be approved from VDC council which untimely support to anchor every initiative at the local level within VDC. LAPA identifies VDC as “operational unit” for planning, coordination, monitoring and evaluation, service delivery with regards to climate change adaptation. LAPA is expected to provide effective delivery of adaptation services to the most climate vulnerable areas and people of entire VDC (LAPA 2011). Ultimately, the LAPA framework should ensure integration and implementation of climate adaptation and resilience actions into sectoral plans, programs and project and ensure people community and their resources are adaptive to climate change, which can possible with the ownership of local government. Both CAPA and LAPA follow similar process and approach, thus intervention, plan and activities envisioned in CAPA and LAPA is alike but the degree and extend was different. LAPA covered larger area with larger households where as CAPA covered smaller area and household. LAPA and CAPA both are very useful in terms of sustainable forest and natural resources management and conservation. 40 Most of the CAPA prepared by the communities were interlinked and associated with their surrounding or nearby CFUG. Thus without considering adaptation in landscape levels the expected benefit from CAPA and LAPA implementation can’t be achieved. In order to increase the synergetic effect of landscape level adaptation, within the certain political boundary the institutional, biological, social bundling should be carried out. Besides, reformation of meso-level climate change governance will support in landscape level adaptation. 5.2 Recommendation Awareness raising and sensitization: Awareness and sensitization to communities, supporting organizations (implementing partner organizations, CBOs, GOs) and state actors. Effectiveness of adaptation interventions: By analyzing the adaptation options listed in 516 adaptation plans, it cannot be said that those listed options are effective. Their effectiveness should be evaluated when these options are tested and implemented in the field. Therefore it is necessary to deploy a team to observe, monitor and verify these adaptation activities as per their effectiveness. Implementation status assessment: Assessment of implementation status should be carried out which guide the future actions. Assessment of existing implementation status will help to draw the possible opportunities and challenges of CAPA and LAPA implementation with future direction . Mechanism to generate leverage: Adaptation activities listed in CAPA and LAPA mostly requires substantial amount of money, which is difficult for CFUG or VFCC or even VDC to generate. Therefore, a mechanism should be developed under the chairmanship of Local Development Officer by establishing a basket fund in DDC. DDC, NGOs, INGOs and projects should contribute in that basket fund. Capacity enhancement: Capacity of implementing organizations and skills and knowledge of LRPs should be enhanced. It helps LRPs to differentiate between development and adaptation activities, allocation of budget, incorporation of adaptation issues, identification of problem etc. Knowledge on climate change will help LRPs to raise practical issues and to maintain the multi- sectoral essence during plan preparation. Local institutions for CAPA implementation: Community based institutions and VDC should lead CAPA preparation process, in collaboration with external agencies. Involvement and ownership of local institutions help to prepare more realistic, locally relevant CAPA and also ensures their active involvement throughout the implementation process. Plans must be developed in a way that they are fully owned by local institutions in order to ensure the bottom up planning process. 41 Legislative: There is urgent need for developing legislation and regulations on climate change adaptation planning and implementation with specifying roles of different agencies and clear working procedures. This will help address the current confusions and contradictions. Gender: Efforts should be paid to include female and socially excluded communities for their active and meaningful participation during plan preparation Adaptation Fund: Provision of establishment of emergency and adaptation funds in each plan. Process: The vulnerability assessment tool used to prepare adaptation plan is comprehensive in addressing the communities' vulnerability. But the assessment tool and plan preparation process did not address ecosystem and species vulnerability. The existing tools can be integrated with other tools like 'flowing forward methodology' to address the ecosystem vulnerability. 42 REFERENCES Adger W.N., Huq S., Brown K., Conway D., & Hulme M. 2003.Adaptation to Climate Change in the Developing World. Progress in Development Studies3(3): 179-195. Climate Adaptation Design and Piloting – Nepal. 2011. 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UK aid/LFP, Kathmandu, Nepal. 43 ANNEXES Annex 1: Database In separate sheet i Annex 2: Identification of major climatic threats of Western Tarai (in percentage of CFs) District Kapilbastu Flooding/ River cutting 70.6 Fire Drought 79.4 61.8 Cold wave 0.0 Hurric ane 0.0 Diseas e 20.6 Decline Agriculture 11.8 Invasive spp 8.8 Nawalparasi 86.4 81.8 63.6 0.0 4.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 Rupandehi 80.0 40.0 62.5 32.5 22.5 7.5 12.5 0.0 Total 78.1 63.5 62.5 13.5 10.4 10.4 9.4 3.1 Annex 3: Causes of GHG emission as identified in Tarai CAPA (in percentage of CFs) Forest Fire Kapilbastu 64.7 Nawalparasi 86.4 Rupandehi 55.0 Total 65.6 Forest Degradation 29.4 31.8 22.5 27.1 Livestock Fuelwood 44.1 59.1 37.5 44.8 32.4 50.0 25.0 33.3 Shifting Cultivation 0.0 13.6 0.0 3.1 Solid Waste 26.5 4.5 15.0 16.7 Fertilizer/ Pesticide 26.5 13.6 20.0 20.8 Annex 4: Identification of adaptation interventions (in percentage of CFs) Awarenes s Plantati on Irrigati on Kapilbastu 88.2 73.5 35.3 Nawalparasi 27.3 68.2 54.5 Rupandehi 97.5 60.0 Total 78.1 66.7 Crop Diversific ation 17.6 76.5 85.3 Forest Manageme nt 35.3 0.0 95.5 36.4 22.7 9.1 22.5 15.0 67.5 17.5 0.0 0.0 34.4 12.5 77.1 45.8 17.7 11.5 ii Embankme nt Fire line Construction Alternative Energy 26.5