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EOC Study Guide
N.1.1. L14.1
Types of Microscopes
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2.
3.
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Compound light- light passes through the specimen and use 2 lenses to form an image.
Dissecting- 2 eye pieces and low magnification
Scanning electron- study surface structures of cells
Transmission electron- study internal cell structure
Science
1. In a controlled experiment the control group would include everything that is kept unchanged. Scientist
try to eliminate or control other variables that could affect the outcome of the experiment. One variable
is deliberately changed to test it effects.
2. Hypothesis – suggested, testable answer to a well defined scientific question.
3. Theory- well tested explanations bases on results of repeated observations.
4. Scientific law is a statement that explains what something does in science
Scientific method- Know how to conduct and observe systematic observations, observe, and record data
in charts and graphs ; differentiate between independent ( manipulated) and dependent( responding)
variables , identify control and bias (judgment made on other factors rather than evidence) of any
experiment
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Independent variables answer the question "What do I change?"
Dependent variables answer the question "What do I observe?"
Controlled variables answer the question "What do I keep the same?"
Controlled experiment- only 1 variable is changed.
L.17.5, 9,& 20 Environment & Ecology
PCB’s( toxic, cancer-causing chemicals)If they were in a river in large amounts and entered the lower
level of the food chain, over time PCB’s would collect in top predators such as fish, making them unsafe
for human consumption.
Renewable and nonrenewable resources
Herbivores eat plants, so if the number of herbivores increased in an ecosystem, the number of
producers would decrease.
Heterotroph- consumer, Autotroph - producer
Solar energy is a renewable source of energy that creates the least air or water pollution.
Herbivores eat producers. Plants are producers.
Know the difference between a food chain and a food web.
Biotic Factors- biological influence on organisms within an ecosystem. (Any living part of an
environment such as plants and animals)
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Abiotic factors – nonliving factors (chemical or physical condition) that influence an ecosystem such as
temperature, oxygen, water.
Invasive, nonnative species reduce biodiversity and affect the other plants and animals in an ecosystem.
Pollution can cause global warming from the green house effect.
CFCs are destroying the ozone that protects us from the sun.
Aquatic zones in the ocean are divided based on light penetration and depth or distance from the shore.
Limiting factors such as competition, predation, parasitism, disease, weather, natural disasters, human
activities can affect carrying capacity (largest number of individuals an environment can support) of a
population.
L15.1 Evolution
As the best-adapted members of a species produce offspring and pass on their favorable characteristics
to succeeding generations, the entire population will gradually become more similar to the bestadapted members.
When scientists compare early embryos they can see that they look similar. So the theory of evolution
says that modern organisms evolved from common ancestors in an evolutionary chain.
Fossil evidence had larger jaws and muscles attached to them, so early hominids had proportionally
larger heads than later hominids.
Convergent evolution- unrelated species from similar environments have adaptations that seem very
similar.
Homologous structure – similar structure found in more than one species that share a common
ancestor. Ex. Forelimbs of human, bat, whale, and cat are similar, so they may have evolved from a
common ancestor.
L15.13
Natural selection- process by which individuals with inherited characteristics well-suited to the
environment leave more offspring than do other individuals. (Mendel)
Genetic drift- random change in allele frequencies in small populations
Gene flow- exchange of genes between populations
Mutation- change in nucleotide sequence of DNA can increase genetic variation
Genetic recombination- new combination of genes due to crossing over during meiosis
L 16.10 Evaluate the impact of biotechnology on the individual, society and the environment, including
medical and ethical issues.
L.15.8 Origin of Life on Earth
Fossil evidence of the earliest form of life is common and well accepted.
Locations on primitive Earth that would have allowed synthesis(making) of complex organic compounds
include: near volcanoes, deep ocean vents, and shallow seashore.
Archaea would have been among the first organisms on Earth.
Blue green bacteria performed photosynthesis and led to an oxygenated atmosphere
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Lighting may have provided the energy for the building blocks of life during the early parts of the
creation of life on Earth.
L.15.6 Classification
Archea –prokaryote, unicellular, autotroph or heterotroph, cell walls without peptidoglycan
Bacteria- prokaryote, unicellular, autotroph or heterotrophy, cell walls with peptidoglycan
Eukarya
1. Protista can have whiplike structures used for locomotion, they are eukaryotic, mostly are
unicellular but some are multicellular, heterotrophic, autotrophic, and both) forms. Perhaps they
are best defined as eukaryotes that are NOT fungi, animals, or plants. Some with cell walls and
chloroplasts
2. Plantae – Plants are autotrophs or producers – make their own food by photosynthesis and have
cells encased in cellulose cell walls. Plants have nucleus, multicellular, are immobile. Plants are
important sources of oxygen, food, and clothing/construction materials, as well as pigments,
spices, dyes, and drugs.
3. Animalia- Animals are multicellular heterotrophs – must get food from things they eat, eukarya,
have nucleus, are capable of mobility at some stage during their lives, and that have cells lacking
cell walls.
4. Fungi- eukarya, nucleus, most are multicelluar, with cell walls, some are unicellular,
heterotrophs. They obtain their energy by decomposing dead and dying organisms and absorbing
their nutrients from those organisms. Some fungi also cause disease (yeast infections, rusts, and
smuts), while others are useful in baking, brewing, as foods, drugs and sources for antibiotics
L.14.7
Definitions related to major plant organs and tissues
1. gymnosperm: plant that bears seeds that are not enclosed in an ovary
2. Cone in gymnosperms: a seed-bearing organ
3. Angiosperm- reproduce sexually by means of flowers.
4. flowers: specialized plant shoot that functions in reproduction; unique to angiosperms
5. fruit: ripened ovary of a flower
6. seed: consists of a plant embryo packaged along with a food supply within a protective coat.
7. roots: underground organ in plants that absorbs water and minerals
8. stem: parts of a plant that support leaves and flowers
9. dermal tissue: the outer covering or "skin" of the plant.
10. ground tissue: tissue between the dermal tissue and vascular tissue of a non-woody plant that
functions in photosynthesis, storage, and support
11. meristematic tissue (meristem) : structure that generates new dermal, vascular, and ground tissue
in a plant
12. Cork cambium: meristem that develops from parenchyma cells in the cortex and produces a tough
outer layer of cork in the stem and root of a woody plant
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13. Vascular tissue: system of tube-shaped cells that branches throughout a plant and transports water,
mineral nutrients, and organic molecules. Vascular tissue runs vertically in the stem, transporting
water and minerals from the roots up to the leaves, and food from the leaves down through the
stem to the roots
14. Xylem: vascular tissue that transports water and dissolved minerals from the roots of a plant to the
shoots
15. phloem: vascular tissue that transports food from a plant's leaves to its roots and other parts
16. Vascular cambium: cylinder of actively dividing cells located between the xylem and phloem of a
plant
17. stomata: pores located in the epidermis of leaves Stoma- singular form
18. transpiration: evaporation of water from a plant's leaves
19. guard cells : one of a pair of cells that open and close the stoma of a plant by changing shape,
allowing gas exchange with the surrounding air
Angiosperms have flowers. Gymnosperms have cones.
Vascular plants transport nutrients through specialized structures called xylem and phloem. Xylem
takes water from the soil or transports water. Phloem transports nutrients.
Grass and shrubs are producers because they are autotrophs that make their own food and animals
(consumers) eat them.
The Female Plant Reproductive Organs:
The pistil is the collective term for the carpel(s). Each carpel includes an ovary (where the
ovules are produced; ovules are the female reproductive cells, the eggs), a style (a tube on top
of the ovary), and a stigma (which receives the pollen during fertilization).
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The Male Reproductive Organs:
Stamens are the male reproductive parts of flowers. A stamen consists of an anther (which
produces pollen) and a filament. The pollen consists of the male reproductive cells; they
fertilize ovules.
Fertilization:
Pollen must fertilize an ovule to produce a viable seed. This process is called pollination, and is
often aided by animals like bees, which fly from flower to flower collecting sweet nectar. As
they visit flowers, they spread pollen around, depositing it on some stigmas. After a male's
pollen grains have landed on the stigma during fertilization, pollen tubes develop within the
style, burrowing down to the ovary, where the sperm fertilizes an ovum (an egg cell), in the
ovule. After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed in the ovary.
L18.9
Photosynthesis & cellular respiration
Mitochondrion- power house of the cell, converts chemical energy stored in food into compounds
the cell can use during cellular respiration.
Solar energy can be transferred into chemical energy.
Plants use CO2 to produce O2.
Photosynthesis equation: CO2 + H2O →C6H12O6 + O2 (carbon dioxide + water→ glucose + oxygen
balanced 6CO2 + 6H2O→C6H12O6 + 6O2
Cellular respiration equation: C6H12O6 + O2 →→ CO2 + H2O (glucose + oxygen→ carbon dioxide +
water)
Reactants are what goes into a chemical equation and products are what you get after the reaction
occurs.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are interrelated because photosynthesis uses light energy to
produce glucose, and cellular respiration uses glucose to generate energy. Cellular respiration uses
the products of photosynthesis – O2 and glucose and photosynthesis uses the products of cellular
respiration – CO2 and water.
Plants must have light to carry out photosynthesis and produce oxygen.
The source of the carbon in glucose that is produced as a result of photosynthesis is carbon dioxide
CO2.
Plant leaves have many more chloroplasts than other parts of a plant because the function of most
plant leaves is to carry out photosynthesis.
Cellular respiration converts chemical energy stored in food into ATP. Cells in plants and animals
then use ATP as their main energy supply.
Aerobic- with oxygen
Anaerobic – without oxygen. Fermentation makes ATP without using oxygen.
L14.36
Factors affecting blood flow
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Arteries – structures specialized for taking blood away from the heart
Veins- take blood back to heart
If a patient’s blood pressure is higher than the average adult’s the patient could be nervous or have
health problems. Being an athlete, losing blood, or avoiding salt would lower blood pressure.
A heart attack, blocking a vessel in the heart, can be caused by a lifetime of unhealthful eating and
other unhealthy habits such as smoking. A diet high in cholesterol can block blood flow to the heart.
Atherosclerosis – buildup of fatty material on the walls of the arteries.
Hypertension- high blood pressure
Clogged arteries can be caused by smoking.
Exercise helps control weigh, reduce stress and makes your heart stronger and more efficient
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L.16.13 Know basic anatomy of the reproductive system and each part’s function.
Male:
1. seminal vesicle- secrete a significant proportion of the fluid that ultimately becomes semen
2. prostate gland- secretes a slightly basic fluid that constitutes 20–30% of the volume of the semen
3. vas deferens- transport sperm from the epididymis
4. urethra- provides an exit for urine as well as semen
5. epididymis- a coiled tube attached to the back and upper side of the testicle that stores sperm and is
connected to the vas deferens
6. scrotum- pouch containing testicles
7. penis- external male sex organ
8. testes-male reproductive gland
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Female
1. ovaries- female reproductive organs that produce eggs and the sex hormones
2. oviduct (fallopian tube)- , tubes in the body that transport eggs from the ovary to the uterus.
3. uterus- hollow muscular organ in the pelvic cavity of female mammals, in which the embryo is
nourished and develops before birth
4. cervix- the neck of the uterus consisting of a narrow passage leading to the vagina.
5. vagina- in female mammals, a muscular tube that connects the cervix of the womb to the vulva
The reproductive system remains immature through the first years of life and begins to function only
around puberty.
In the female reproductive system, eggs are released from the ovary into the fallopian tube or oviduct.
Fertilization occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube). Fallopian tube and Oviduct are the same thing.
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Fertilization- a sperm joins an egg.
Zygote- fertilized egg
If the fallopian tube is blocked it can prevent pregnancy by preventing the egg from reaching the uterus.
Blastula – stage of development when the embryo is a hollow ball of identical cells.
The Blastocyst is implanted in the uterus.
Know what changes to the developing baby that occur in each trimester of pregnancy
First Trimester: 1-3 months A cluster of cells forms when the sperm fertilizes the egg. The placenta
and umbilical cord form. It is a time of rapid growth. After 8 weeks the embryo is called a fetus. The
baby’s brain, spinal cord and other organs begin to form and the heart begins to beat. Bones and
muscles start to form. Muscles can contract and hands can make a fist. Fingers and toes begin to
take shape. The baby weighs about 1 ounce and is about 3 inches long at the end of this stage. By
the end of the 1st trimester most of the major organs and tissues are fully formed.
Second Trimester: 4-6 months By 14 weeks the hands, feet, and legs have reached their birth
proportions. Eyes, ears, and noses are well developed. Baby has the ability to kick, make facial
expressions and hear. Sex organs form. Eyebrows, eyelashes and fingernails form. The baby can
swallow and suck his or her thumb. The baby weighs a little over 2 pounds is about 14 inches long.
Third Trimester: 7-9 months The fetus grows rapidly. Organ systems mature and the fetus grow in
size and mass. The lungs and other organs undergo a series of changes that prepare them for life
outside the uterus. Bones and muscles become stronger. The fetus can regulate its body
temperature. The baby can open his or her eyes. At birth the baby will be around 20 inches long and
weigh between 6 and 9 pounds.
L14.52 Immune system
The skin is the body’s first line of defense against invasion of pathogens.
Vaccines protect people from an infectious virus because a small dose of the weakened virus is given to
the patient so that antibodies can form.
Some vaccines use only parts of the protein coat of a virus because the protein coat carries the antigens
that provoke an immune response
A vaccine produces memory cells that provide resistance to that pathogen.
Prolonged and repeated use of an antibiotic can cause the bacteria that it is being used to fight, to
become resistant to the antibiotic.
Body’s nonspecific defenses against invading pathogens include skin, mucus, sweat, and tears.
Specific defenses – antibodies
Causes of disease can be genetic, environmental, or from pathogens such as viruses and bacteria
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L14.26 Major parts of the brain on a diagram
Cerebellum - the part of the brain below the
back of the cerebrum. It regulates balance,
posture, movement, and muscle coordination.
Corpus Callosum - a large bundle of nerve
fibers that connect the left and right cerebral
hemispheres. In the lateral section, it looks a
bit like a "C" on its side.
Frontal Lobe of the Cerebrum - the top,
front regions of each of the cerebral
hemispheres. They are used for reasoning,
emotions, judgment, and voluntary movement.
Medulla Oblongata - the lowest section of
the brainstem (at the top end of the spinal
cord); it controls automatic functions
including heartbeat, breathing, etc.
Occipital Lobe of the Cerebrum - the region
at the back of each cerebral hemisphere that
contains the centers of vision and reading
ability (located at the back of the head).
Parietal Lobe of the Cerebrum - the middle lobe
of each cerebral hemisphere between the frontal
and occipital lobes; it contains important sensory
centers (located at the upper rear of the head).
Pituitary Gland - a gland attached to the base of
the brain (located between the Pons and the
Corpus Callosum) that secretes hormones.
Pons - the part of the brainstem that joins the
hemispheres of the cerebellum and connects the
cerebrum with the cerebellum. It is located just
above the Medulla Oblongata.
Spinal Cord - a thick bundle of nerve fibers that
runs from the base of the brain to the hip area,
running through the spine (vertebrae).
Temporal Lobe of the Cerebrum - the region at
the lower side of each cerebral hemisphere;
contains centers of hearing and memory (located
at the sides of the head).
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L.14.3 Cells & Cell theory
After invention of the microscope, biologists were able to look at organisms on a microscopic scale. This
led to the cell theory.
Cell theory- All cells come from pre-existing cells by division (new cells are produced from existing cells),
the cell is the basic unit of structure and function of living things, and all living things are composed of
cells.
Cell – basic unit of living things
Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus. They have cell walls, cell or plasma membranes, cytoplasm, plasmid,
ribosome, and flagella.
Plasmid- small circular DNA molecule found in bacteria
Eukaryotes have a nucleus
Plant cells have a cell wall for support and protection. Animal cells do not.
Chloroplasts are found in plant cells, but not animal cells. photosynthesis
The main function of the cell wall is to protect the cell and maintain its shape.
The plasma membrane or cell membrane is a thin flexible barrier around a cell that contains channels
made up of protein that help move materials from one side to the other. It controls which substances
enter the cell.
Diffusion is the net movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low
concentration.
Osmosis is the passive transport of water across a selectively permeable membrane
Hypotonic-water flow is into cell
Hypertonic-water flow equal in both directions
Isotonic –water flow is out of cell
The functions of the nucleus include storing DNA, directing activities of the cell and containing the
information needed to make proteins.
Lysosomes- break down macromolecules into particles the cell can use.
Microfilaments carry out cell movement. Cilia and flagella are made of protein fibers called
microtubules.
Ribosomes - make proteins using instructions that come from the nucleus. Both Eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells have ribosomes.
Mitochondrion- power house of the cell, converts chemical energy stored in food into compounds the
cell can use during cellular respiration.
Cytoplasm-region between plasma membrane and nucleus
Nuclear envelop- pairs of membranes that surround the nucleus
Nucleolus- ball like mass of fibers in the nucleus
Chromatin- long fibers of DNA in the nucleus
Endoplasmic reticulum- network of membranes that produce a variety of molecules.
Golgi Apparatus- modifies, stores, and routes proteins and chemical products to their next destination.
Vacuoles- membrane- bound sac that bus from the endoplasmic reticulum.
L.16.17 Mitosis & Meiosis
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Mitosis phases
1. Prophase: The genetic material in the nucleus condenses and the duplicated chromosomes
become visible. The nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope begins to break down,
spindle fibers also start extending from both poles of the cell.
2. Metaphase: The duplicated chromosomes become line up in the center of the cell, spindle
fibers attach themselves to the centromere of the chromosomes.
3. Anaphase: The stage of mitosis in which the duplicated sets of chromosomes separate and two
identical groups move to opposite poles of the cell.
4. Telophase: A nuclear membrane re-forms around each new group of chromosomes.
Interphase- The cell grows and replicates its DNA
Cytokinesis- Cell separates
Mitosis produces offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. Mitosis produces 2 identical
daughter cells with identical chromosomes.
The number of chromosomes in a cell double prior to the beginning of mitosis so that each daughter cell
produced has the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
Meiosis goes through 2 divisions with Prophase 1, Metaphase 1, Anaphase 1, Telophase 1 and
cytokinesis, Prophse II, Anaphase II, Metaphase II, Telophase II and cytokinesis. Meiosis produces
offspring that are not genetically identical to the parent. It produces 4 cells that are different.
Gametes or sex cells have half the number of chromosomes as an organism’s other cells.
Meiosis allows a plant to produce offspring plants with unique (one of a kind) combinations of genetic
material.
Cancer (uncontrolled cell growth) may result from mutations that affect the proteins that regulate the
cell cycle.
L. 16.1 & 3 Genetics
Segregation-separation of alleles during gamete formation
Independent assortment-independent segregation of genes during the formation of gametes (sex cells)
Punnet squares
Cross 2 heterozygous tall pea plants Tt and 75% will carry the dominant trait. 25% - TT and tt and 50% Tt.
TT and Tt carry the dominant trait. 50% chance of being heterozygous Tt. 25% homozygous TT and 25%
homozygous tt Can do a simple Punnet square to figure out questions like these. Make sure you know
how to do a Punnet square.
Types of inheritance
Codominant – both traits are expressed, white chicken + black chicken = black and white chicken
Intermediate or incomplete dominance – genes have equal dominance, white chicken + black chicken +
grey chicken
Polygenic – many genes
Dominant – Recessive – 2 genes, one is dominant over the other.
sex-linked recessive trait- gene usually located on the X chromosome
Basic components of DNA are the same in humans and bacteria.
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DNA has the bases ATGC, A goes with T and G goes with C. RNA does not have T, it has U instead of T. So
you can tell if it is DNA or RNA. AT spells the word at. The 2 left go together.
RNA gets information from DNA
RNA is produced by copying part of the nucleotide sequence of DNA during transcription. During
translation, the cell uses information from messenger RNA to produce proteins. The proteins tell the cell
what to do and what it looks like.
During DNA replication, 2 copies of the original DNA molecule are made.
The first step in DNA replication occurs when the DNA molecule separates into two stands. The enzymes
produce tow new complementary strands.
DNA stores the cell’s genetic information. It controls the cell by determining what proteins are made.
DNA remains in the nucleus. Four bases in DNA are arranged in three-letter words called codons. Each
codon codes for the same amino acid in most living things. Amino acids make up proteins.
The number and sequence of amino acids in each protein is different.
L18.1 Macromolecules
Lipids- made mostly from carbon and hydrogen atoms p. 46 Used to store energy and are important
parts of biological membranes and waterproof coverings, steroids are lipids and may serve as chemical
messengers
Carbohydrates –made up of sugar molecules, main fuel supply for cellular work. The formula of any
carbohydrate is a multiple of CH2O. 1 carbon, 2 hydrogen, 1 oxygen
Nucleic Acids- contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and phosphorus
Nucleic acids are polymers made from monomers known as nucleotides(5-carbon sugar, phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base
DNA & RNA store and transmit genetic information sugars deoxyribose DNA and ribose RNA
Proteins- polymers of molecules of amino acids. Amino acids had an amino group, carboxyl group and
the R-group or side group that distinguishes one amino acid from another.
Protein – responsible for most day to day functioning of organisms., examples: form hair, long term
nutrient storage, defend the body, act as signals, as a catalyst for a chemical reaction, form muscles and
bones, transport substances into or out of a cell, fight diseases. Tells the cell what to do and what to
look like.
Enzymes are specialized proteins that are catalyst to speed up chemical reactions.
enzymes act as catalysts in biochemical reactions and that they lower the activation energy needed for
the reaction to occur and therefore decrease the time needed for the reaction. 3 factors that affect
enzyme activity: concentration, pH and temperature
18.12 Properties of Water- Know 6 properties of water that make it able to support life
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Hydrogen bonds
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Polarity of these bonds
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Cohesive/adhesive behavior
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Ability to modify temperature of abiotic and biotic ecosystems
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Expansion upon freezing
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Versatility as a solvent due to neutral pH
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