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TIME THE ELUSIVE FACTOR A THREE DIMENSIONAL TIME STRUCTURE I challenge you to follow in the footsteps of the adventurer on unknown paths and discovering a whole new trail in the landscape of physics. “The most elementary particles of nature encased in scalar coordinates of time.” “ORTHOGONAL SCALAR TIME” “For entangled pairs of particles, there is no such thing as an arbitrarily large distance. With the speed of light, particles are separated only by a Planck length IN TIME and the SPACE VOLUME, is at its smallest reason why “communication” is (almost) immediate”. It is a bold statement to say that there is a perfectly reasonable explanation why entangled pairs of particles “so to speak” exchange information faster than the speed of light, or that there is something like “scalar time coordinates” and what is the meaning of “orthogonal scalar time”?. To discover the reasoning behind this I invite the reader to follow my train of thought. It was from the beginning intended to keep it simple with a minimum of variables, the clearer the message, the more people get a better picture of the problem. With only a single fixed given “the Planck length” and no other variables it was possible to look at physics from a different angle and to add new insights, and of course everything is not yet perfect, but like everything else, this new thinking needs time to gain a foothold. Those who have already read “TIME THE ELUSIVE FACTOR”, and “ON THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERS” these pages are up to the core of the subject, but for clarities sake a number of explanatory comments are added, you can skip it if you prefer, but as a reminder I strongly suggest to take a moment and read it anyway. 1 At the origin of the universe very basic building blocks, already defined in the three-dimensional hexagonal quantum canvas, were transformed into more complex structures and the factor time played no role in this process. The formation of the universe was and still is an ongoing process with faults and successes, which eventually leads to the small and large structures around and above us. There was no need for a time factor in the genesis of the cosmos until the first lump of organic matter responded to its surroundings. The simplest organism(1) ever, a biochemical structure, that drew its energy from the watery environment in which it originated through osmosis, developed over time a very rudimentary electromagnetic radiation sensitive spot which could have been the precursor of a nervous system that enabled these organisms, at a very basic level, to be aware (2) of their surroundings. It is unlikely that that sensitive spot already responded to the wavelengths that we perceive, this probably shifted evolutionary. To enable the interaction between the clear-cut outside world, and the precursor of this nervous system, a suitable “sense organ” had to develop in order to make it possible to translate the number of bits of data derived from the electromagnetic field into manageable information. This very early underdeveloped nervous system was not yet able to effect the correct sequence of these bits which would have resulted in jerky impressions/movements, a succession of small, non- flowing events with much background noise. 2 The solution lay in the development of a kind of filter so that by dividing the incoming data (colored dots in this example) with extremely small spatial separations the input of that same data became much more fluid. The more spatial separation between the receiver and the incoming data the farther away that data (was) is situated. These elements, the possibility to translate a number of bits of data derived from the electromagnetic field into manageable information(3) and dividing these data with extremely small spatial separations, gave birth to the concept of “depth” which made it possible to visualize the world in three dimension. Reduction of data input(4) and interference suppression made it possible to detect and/or identify distinctive points or regions, transforming images into point clouds. 3 When at a certain point in evolution this basic life form(5) made its first attempt to explore the environment, it was important to be able to estimate how much effort (energy/force) it would take to go from point A to point B and back .... each time distance was further subdivided into smaller chunks which gave a more exact idea of the distance to bridge. The more " chunks " the more accurate the measurement, and ultimately these chunks were the forerunner of what became finally known as .... TIME. The origin of length and or distance and the concept of TIME which are different expressions of the same event …. can be traced back to the fact that those very basic calculations and/or measurements where an elementary survival tool. In other words, the two concepts (length and time) are inextricably intertwined, it are identical variables where until now there was believed that length was a fundamentally different dimension than time. But what do we truly mean by "measurement'? To not give some superficial ostensibly "operational” definition that is embedded in tacit in a more or less not coherent framework of merely assumptions, a renewed approach. Time is an evolutionary given and our brains cannot project a world in 3D without it. When I wrote that at a certain point in evolution basic life forms made their first attempt to explore the environment and it was important for them to estimate how far a potential food source was situated to be able to grab it with a/its tentacle(s) or to suck it in, or even how much effort it would take to go from point A to point B and back …. the essence of the questions was already vaguely captured. 4 That first organism only had two options either there was confirmation or there was denial on its estimation that the spatial separation between him and the “target” was or was not in accordance with its possibilities. It was a Yes {1} or a No {0}, synapses fired or not and in response of that signal it provoked an eventual reaction. In fact, it was the first structured signaling device that emerged with a digital background and in a way, it was the first vowel and consonant of a structural internal language, working on “brain” level. In a further phase of development that internal language was almost certainly sophisticated with concepts such as IF (what to change), THEN (to change into), OR ELSE (how to cause the change) …. In an attempt to maintain or improve the ongoing process. To externalize that internal language and to communicate on a very basic level with a similar organism there must be means of signaling, be it with a wobble of the body, the stretching and bending of a tentacle, or …. and by repetition even indicate or suggest the source of the danger or the distance to a potential food source. Therefore, a number is the externalization of an internal brain process converted in a movement and visually coordinated and processed by that same brain …. a closed loop. Measurement(6) or system of measure, has its roots in the externalization of that internal language of the brain in an attempt to pin point a target visually coordinated and processed by that same brain …. a closed loop. In this respect, to express time we must in some way quantify it, number is therefore essential. Having established that time is evolutionary and has an arhythmical and numerical structure, we can safely say that time is a scalar and not a vector ……. a vector needs MAGNITUDE (2, 7, 35, etc.), a DIRECTION (north, south, south-east, north west, etc.) and a REVERSIBLE ORIENTATION (forward and backward), where time 5 lacks those qualifications and only has magnitude and a non-reversible orientation. Having defined time as a scalar, it is important to find out how this fits in a new structure of the universe. Let’s start with the smallest possible length, the Planck length. The Planck length is the length scale at which the structure of space becomes dominated by quantum effects, and it is impossible to determine the difference between two locations less than one Planck length apart. In string theory, the Planck length is also in the order of magnitude of the oscillating strings that form elementary particles, and shorter length do not make physical sense. The Planck length being the smallest possible length (lp = 1,616 199(97) × 10−35 m), makes the Planck area (lp2) the smallest possible, or ….. ? The diagonal of the surface of the Planck area is longer than one Planck length but smaller than two Planck lengths, and since the Planck length is the smallest meaningful length, fractions of a Planck length don't have meaning, therefore the only logical option is that when the diagonal (out of necessity) exactly equals the Planck length, is to conclude that the Planck area, is a circle. Strange things begin to occur in the world of quantum physics when embroidering on the previous. If cosmic strings and branes are the real underlying structures of the universe, the first task is to determine their real quantum properties, and then to try to deduce the underlying universal structures. In theories of particle physics based on string theory, the characteristic length scale of strings is typically in the order of the Planck length. Strings are in the order of 10-33 cm long and are therefore a first dimension equivalent. 6 Neumann allowed the end point of a string free movement, Dirichlet constrained its movement to one plane known as a D-brane or Dpbrane, where the “p” stands for the number of spatial dimensions. A D0-brane is what we know as a point, a D1-brane has one dimension and is thus a string–like object, a D2-brane a plane on which end points of a string can be attached. So the smallest D2-brane with Planck dimensions would be a circle, but as argued before the Planck length is the smallest meaningful length, fractions of a Planck length don't have meaning, so the circumference of our D2-brane (a circle) is not a multiple of that Planck length what makes that circle an impossibility, and the question arises if there is a minimum 'true size' to that circle. The solution lies in answering the question : “what mathematical figure has a circumference of three times the diagonal of our circle?” (instead of 3,14 times), the answer is a hexagon. The smallest D2-brane is NOT a square or a circles but is in fact a two dimensional hexagonal, a quantum of space, that is able to act as an information carrier (0, 1). In physics the definition of a closed string is a string that has no endpoints, and therefore is topologically equivalent to a circle, but as proven a single string is unable to curl up and if that “closed string” refers to a single string with the assumption that one of the vibrational modes of a closed string can be identified as the graviton, there is a problem. This also means that (single) as closed strings with a diagonal smaller than the Planck length cannot exist, it makes the assumption that 6 out of the 10 space-time dimensions in string theory are wrapped up to a size of 10-35 m an impossibility. Is building a universe with only strings the length of 10 -35 m even possible? 7 The first dimension in the quantum world are D1-branes. Several D1-branes or strings in each other’s vicinity will always have a tendency to stick together, and that can only be in the shape of a hexagon, a D2-brane, it is their ultimate fate, there is no other option possible. The second dimension down in the quantum world is made up of D2branes (on which end points of a string can be attached), shaped as hexagonal prisms with Planck length dimensions, matted together and molded into a two-dimensional fabric, a flexible field. “n” layers of this two-dimensional field, will transform into a 3D canvas or matrix, the quantum dimension from which emerge all the elementary particles. The layers of the two-dimensional field putting together the threedimensional canvas are separated by strings. These strings, in the inability to form additional hexagons because the available space is already filled, are “open” strings with one or both endpoints on the 8 surface of a D2-brane. They have no fixed point of attachment and (may) slide over the surface(s) of the D2-brane(s). Two hexagonal D2-branes inextricably bonded by one or more strings is (are) in fact a D3-brane(s). The third dimension of the D3-brane is not the height to indicate the third dimension in space, but rather the stacking of n-layers of D2-branes separated by strings. If the Planck length is in fact the smallest possible length(!), it implies that it is impossible at that level to compress the quantum dimension still further, so it is fair to say that the Planck length materialized in the form of a string is a “force” sustaining the 3D canvas/matrix, it is a strong force. Extending throughout the whole of space it prevents space to implode, it acts as force field. As strings want to contract to minimize their potential energy, the law of conservation of energy prevents them from disappearing, and instead they vibrate/oscillate which makes it possible for the flexible D2-brane 9 field and in turn the 3D canvas/matrix to oscillate/vibrate. In other words, branes, will never touch one another, it is an endless cycle of near collision, rebound, stretching and near collision over again, waves in an endless ocean .... in that capacity strings act as a weak force. One can argue that our universe is build out of infinitely interconnected tiny dots, almost like a viscous liquid. A 3D environment that vibrates, can be twisted from the interior and can be compressed towards its interior. It is therefore most likely that this interaction of strings with the 2D-brane field and 3D-canvas/matrix is the source of dark energy/the cosmological constant. The potential energy due to the force of the oscillating strings that attracts the branes to one another is transformed into kinetic energy which is converted into matter. How this works .... “Activated” by (a) vibrating string(s), a D3-brane or space quantum transmits its energy to the next vibrating string(s), which is (are) already vibrating on its (their) own, reinforcing the energy level, to the next D3-brane along the path of least resistance, determined by the origin of the force, its magnitude, and the state of surrounding space. Because string theories are by nature relativistic, adding energy to a string is equivalent to adding mass, by Einstein’s relation E =mc2. Oscillating/vibrating strings and D3-branes/space quanta therefore have mass, reason why starting from the most fundamental state of matter things/objects have mass. The source of the missing dark matter? When energy is transferred from one space quantum to the next this chain of space quanta vibrations/oscillation creates a traveling wave, which is de facto a pilot wave. Traveling waves of space quanta (D3branes) vibrate/oscillate at specific frequencies which correlates with their source and propagate steadily forward at the speed of light. When two or more complementary traveling waves of (3D-branes) space quanta interact, they form a standing wave. 10 The result of this interaction is mass, a particle. (the wave particleduality: a particle is also a wave, and a wave is also a particle) Mass is thus in essence vibrating/oscillating space quanta (D3-branes) giving birth (among other particles) to each of the elementary particles, six quarks and six leptons each with their own unique vibrational signature. Destructive interference is the cause that not all standing waves lead to the formation of a particle. Once a particle is created it will always attempt to regain its original state, back to the matrix. As the 3D-matrix is constantly vibrating and creating its own waves, similar to the pilot waves of de Broglie-Bohm (which have no geographical limits and might in principle span the entire universe) each particle, which in itself is a wave form, is like a surfer on top of such a pilot wave, it occupies a particular place at every specific moment in time and its motion is dictated by the motion of that (spread-out) wave. The wave itself is probabilistic, but the particle does take a real trajectory from source to target. Complex Quaternions and the Wave Structure of Matter in Space Sir William Rowan Hamilton (1843) invented quaternions, a fourdimensional algebra that uses the property of imaginary numbers to represent three orthogonal planes, which allows us to represent the motion of real things in real three-dimensional space Working with complex (transverse) plane waves in three-dimensional space needs to add a second level of complex numbers to represent these transverse oscillations of the plane waves. This is where the work of Clifford (1878) is important as he developed quaternions into complex quaternions that do exactly this. When multiplying a quaternion by its complex conjugate we see how all the complex orthogonal vectors cancel and leave us with just the scalar terms in a 4D continuum (identical to the form of a sphere). All 11 the vector transverse waves (waves on the complex orthogonal planes) are canceling one another leaving just a spherical standing wave. Q = t + ix + jy + kz and the complex conjugate Q*= t - ix - jy – kz QQ* = t2 - tix - tjy - tkz + ixt - i2x2 - ixjy - ixkz + jyt - jyix - j2y2 - jykz + kzt - kzix - kzjy - k2z2 = t2 + x2 + y2 + z2 The metric dimensions replaced by scalar time Q = T + itx + jty + ktz and the complex conjugate Q* = T – itx – jty - ktz Q . Q* = (T)2 – Titx – Tjty – Tktz +Titx –i2(tx)2 – itxjty – itxktz + Tjty – jtyitx – j2(ty)2 – jtyktz + Tktz – ktzitx – ktzjty – k2(tz)2 = (T)2 – i2(tx)2 – j2(ty)2 – k2(tz)2 = (T)2 – (-1)(tx)2 – (-1)(ty)2 – (-1)(tz)2 = (T)2 + (tx)2 + (ty)2 + (tz)2 Where (T) = (scalar) time (measurement) in space (not to be confused with space-time) and (t) = scalar time measure I retained the x,y,z notation to indicate the direction of the coordinates Again all the transverse waves (waves on the complex orthogonal planes) are canceling one another leaving just a spherical standing wave, this time with only scalar time coordinates. The most elementary particles of nature encased in scalar coordinates of time. 12 The double slit experiment the double slit experiment showed that when light is shone at two slits in a screen, a photon is able to pass through one of them as a particle and both of them as a wave(??) Quantum physics postulates that the reason for this is that a particle lacks definite physical properties and is defined only by the probabilities of it being in different states. You could say it exists in a suspended state, a sort of super-animation until it is actually observed, at which point, it takes on the form of either a particle or wave, while still having the properties of both. It is indeed true that a particle is composed of a wave packet, as argued before, and when that particle (a photon or electron) is traveling through the viscous 3D canvas (the matrix) it creates traveling waves in its wake. The photon or electron will arrive at the grid still in the same shape as when it was sent out to the grid (as a particle). The photon or electron has two options, or it collides with the grid, or it passes through one of the slits and when it does it will leave a mark on the screen, although this remains unnoticed BECAUSE the travelling waves (of space quanta) will also pass through the two slits where they are split and emerge as (two) separate waves which will interact and when the top of one wave meets the bottom of another wave, nodes will be created which will translate themselves on the screen ahead as dots and mingle with the dots made by the photon or electron …. simple logic if you introduce an æther (the matrix) into the equation. 13 ORTHOGONAL SCALAR TIME Switching to an orthogonal scalar time coordinate system, tx + ty + tz will label a position where “T” is the scalar measurement of time and “t” is a scalar measure of time in a sense that the time co-ordinate “T” is also a scalar quantity just like the spatial co-ordinates are. Let’s imagine these three spatial time coordinates (tx, ty and tz), and AX indicating a displacement in time (T). After closing that configuration a “volume” is obtained with AX as body diagonal. X A And there it is …. “A Three-Dimensional Time Structure” or SPACE VOLUME The body diagonal AX stands for "T", scalar time (measurement). The volume in which “T” is the body diagonal replaces the concept of "space-time" by the more accurate denomination "SPACE VOLUME" which has no concrete shape because depending on the force or momentum exerted on an object, this new concept has a different content. 14 Objects create no specific space for themselves, they will only use a certain SPACE VOLUME to go from point A to point X. The greater a force exerted on an object, the faster it moves, the less scalar time (T) to bridge (see red body diagonals below), the smaller the SPACE VOLUME used. Surface X2 bigger 3 Contents X times larger Length X times greater Due to the complementary nature of time and length it should be clear that when a certain distance has been traveled at a certain speed, the numeric value of that distance traveled (length) or the progress of time will not change when that same distance is traveled at a higher speed, it is the arithmetical value of the unit of measurement that changes. 15 Some explanation …… The scalar time “T” (visualized in B) suggested by the body diagonal on the left in the drawing is half the length of scalar time “T” on the right, (visualized in A) due to a force twice as large exerted on a similar object. A B A and B represent the same distance or scalar time, and yet there is a clear difference. 16 There is uniform scaling(7) of the space volume as the scalar “T” depicts simultaneously the time and length dimension, both pointing in the same direction (see the drawing above). Every time the progress of time and/or the speed and distance traveled changes a new space volume opens up (scaled to its new proportions) and gives the body diagonal the possibility to point in another direction while maintaining its scalar identity. Consequently when an particle (photon, electron,…) is moving at the speed of light, it is obvious that the body diagonal of its SPACE VOLUME will be reduced to the size of one Planck length, but as said before, there is no smaller length than the Planck length, meaning that the scalar measures tx, ty and tz of that space volume must measure one Planck length … and after a bit of number crunching the problem with the Planck square(s) appears again … the indivisibility of the smallest length. The only option that remains open is to conclude that at the speed of light we arrive again at the very real foundations of space, the matrix …. back to the beginning and anew we stumble on a limit where it is impossible to travel faster than the speed of light. The scaling factor for the scaling of a space volume when particles/objects move at very high speed is now easy to determine. At the speed of light the scale of the space volume gets the value ZERO (0) this equals the Planck length, when the speed equals zero, the space volume is at its maximum and gets the value HUNDRED (100) and is equated to the size of the universe. This format is chosen at random other possibilities are not excluded, but in this context, it is valuable as a guideline … an example, but nothing forbids to maintain this standard either. 17 It would be extremely foolish to put this new insight into practice in daily life, but in the case of very fast moving objects it will clarify some issues were no conclusive answer has yet been found. SPUKHAFTE FERNWIRKUNG ENDLICH GELÖST “Measurements of physical properties such as position, momentum, spin, and polarization, performed on entangled particles are found to be appropriately correlated. For example, if a pair of particles are generated in such a way that their total spin is known to be zero, and one particle is found to have clockwise spin on a certain axis, the spin of the other particle, measured on the same axis, will be found to be counterclockwise, as to be expected due to their entanglement. However, this behavior gives rise to paradoxical effects: any measurement of a property of a particle can be seen as acting on that particle (e.g., by collapsing a number of superposed states) and will change the original quantum property by some unknown amount; and in the case of entangled particles, such a measurement will be on the entangled system as a whole. It thus appears that one particle of an entangled pair "knows" what measurement has been performed on the other, and with what outcome, even though there is no known means for such information to be communicated between the particles, which at the time of measurement may be separated by arbitrarily large distances.” Source : Wikipedia - Quantum Entanglement For entangled pairs of particles, there is no such thing as an arbitrarily large distance. With the speed of light, particles are separated only by a Planck length IN TIME and the SPACE VOLUME is at its smallest reason why “communication” is (almost) immediate. 18 THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT(8) AND THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATIONS The theory of special relativity started off with the experiment of Michelson and Morley which led to the Lorentz transformations (length contraction and time dilation) in order to sustain the outcome of their experiment that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the source. However, when it is alleged that the speed of light is the ULTIMATE speed, we stumble on the same problem as with the Planck length, the inability to take the hurdle of the smallest length. There is simply nothing that can move faster than the speed of light, even when (for arguments sake) another photon is projected from an already travelling photon, the speed of light will not be infringed. Indeed, both photons will collide on the foundations of space, the matrix …., a limit, the Planck length, reason why it is impossible to travel faster than the speed of light. The absolute minimum length, (the Planck length ) and the most extreme speed limit, (the speed of light) congregate at the very foundation of space ….. the matrix. It is of the utmost importance to realize that there is ONLY uniform scaling of the space volume and the body diagonal representing the distance traveled (length) and the progress of time, moving objects themselves undergo no length contraction and are not subject to time dilation, they retain their original characteristics, reason why there is no need for length contraction or time dilation(9) to sustain a theory that had the outcome it deserved. 19 THE WORLD OF PHOTONS AND ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION In our "slow" world photons span every second a distance of +/300,000 km. In comparison, in the "ultra-fast" world of photons, only a Planck length of distance will be bridged. In one year in our slow world, light travels a distance of 9.460.800.000.000 km but the photon in its ultra-fast world covers a distance of only 31.536.000 Planck lengths(10). The space volume and corresponding body diagonal of these 31,536,000 Planck lengths is obviously still very small. As said before length and time are inextricably intertwined, identical variables, but does that mean that at the basis of the universe, the matrix, when the body diagonal of the space volume equals one Planck length, time is at its minimum value? The answer is yes, one Planck length is travelled at the speed of light in one Planck time, and vice versa one Planck time equals one Planck length, the body diagonal representing the distance traveled (length) and the progress of time. All this brings us to that final question : “can the slow world we experience as real, give us the answers we need to discover nature’s most precious secrets, or is it the ultra-fast world inhabited by photons and electromagnetic radiation that will give us the key to open its treasure house?” What secrets lay still hidden in the pictures made by Hubble or by his successor the James Webb Space Telescope seen through the eyes of the photon? Do we have to throw a few things overboard, and put forward a few new ideas instead? My answer you already know. 20 EXPLANATORY COMMENTS (1) Such organisms are generally considered to have emerged within flagellated eukaryotes followed by Ediacaran life, very, very basic life forms with very, very limited capabilities, but still just sufficient to survive and to procreate in the first instance by splitting of cells that develop into mature specimens. (2) awareness is that first sensory response that there is not only a world on the inside but that something is going on, on the outside as well …. Cold for instance causes the slowing down of the biochemistry, warmth evaporates water stopping that organism to function … with time evolution took its course and a sensitive spot occurred …. (3) Sensation is the detection of external or internal stimulation, for instance detecting electromagnetic waves … sound waves. Sensing on the other hand is, the detection of a physical presence and moving (motion) is a change in position. Somewhere in time in attempting to explore the environment, these abilities merged and are part of nature (detection, evaluation, fight or flee …) … the ability to survive. (4) a contemporary example why reducing data input was, and still is important : Being aware of the surroundings is not just a passive registration from the environment, but analyzing information that is projected on the two-dimensional retina. More specifically, in the sensory memory on the basis of the impoverished retinal representation, a higher visual 21 representation is determined by a number of intermediate processes. Only a part of the incoming information is actually used. The short-term memory, where information is stored where we are at that time and are aware off is the MAP on which we base our decisions. This short memory is limited in capacity and only the elements where attention is paid to, can be included in that short-term memory … REDUCED DATA INPUT …. If not there would be an overload of information to process (5) Basic life form, …. the first observer Intelligent information processing must come into existence on a planetary system in the universe, and once it comes into evidence investigative observers will emerge, making observations compatible with that conscious life that is observing. This observer unaware of any biological mechanism, perceives the reality as discrete spatial states which the microtubules in his brains receive as unnoted electrical impulses whereby a physical perception of motion and change of the external world in a forward orientation is accomplished. (6) Measurement : Physical units like mass and length are human artifacts and are a way that we explain the world. We even constructed apparatuses to measure these quantities and from there emerged a number of mutually supportive units which enabled us to describe the world. The pivot point is TIME, because it lays the groundwork for the arithmetical numbers and the way we use them to measure things. (7) Uniform scaling is a linear transformation that enlarges or shrinks objects by a scale factor that is the same in all directions. The result of uniform scaling is similar, in the geometric sense, to the original. 22 Non-uniform scaling is obtained when at least one of the scaling factors is different from the others. It changes the shape of the object, a square may change into a rectangle, or into a parallelogram if the sides of the square are not parallel to the scaling axes. (8) Michelson and Morley could never see or find the difference they were seeking because of the principle of the Galilean invariance. Their experiment was set up in the same manner as two people sitting in a bus that is in motion, throwing a ball to each other. One cannot add the speed of the bus with the speed of the ball, neither will the speed of the bus have any influence on the speed or the trajectory of the ball …. the same for the beams of light in the experiment, THE EARTH BEING THE BUS!!! (9) The Lorentz transformations : Length contraction is the phenomenon of a decrease in length of an object as measured by an observer who is traveling at any non-zero velocity relative to the object usually only noticeable at a substantial fraction of the speed of light Time dilatation : A clock at rest with respect to one observer may be measured to tick at a different rate when compared to a second observer's clock. This effect arises neither from technical aspects of the clocks nor from the propagation time of signals, but from the nature of space-time. (10) One year has 60 x 60 x 24 x 365 = 31,536,000 seconds, each second corresponds with one Planck length distance travelled by a photon. 23 REFERENCES 1. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERS Publication date September 17, 2016 on ZENODO 2. WHY TIME IS AN EVOLUTIONARY GIVEN AND NOT SOMETHING THAT SPROUTS OUT OF THE BIG BANG Publication date July 10, 2016 on ZENODO 3. EVOLUTIONARY TIME part two INTRODUCING THE FOURTH ANTHROPICAL PRINCIPLE, PIAGETS STRUCTURALISM AND THE ORIGIN OF NUMBERS Publication date November 20, 2016 on ZENODO Zenodo is a research data repository. It was created by OpenAIRE and CERN to provide a place for researchers to deposit datasets. Hoc est proprium intellectualis G. KINET. Cum in aliis disputationibus scriptorum citanda vel ut. Viginti pages quattuor annexis E-mail : [email protected] One should not use this material for commercial purposes, but if this is the case, one must first ask permission of the author. 24