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International Journal of Sport Communication, 2009, 2, 484-499
© Human Kinetics, Inc.
Commercial Programming at a SingleSport Cable Channel: Strategies
and Practices at Golf Channel
Douglas M. Carroll
Menlo College, USA
The emergence of single-sport cable channels represents a refinement of the allsports cable-channel concept and a new trend in the televised-sport marketplace.
This study analyzed the contents of 24 continuous hours of programming on Golf
Channel and tabulated the number and types of advertisements to better understand
commercial programming strategies and practices. Commercial programming
elements such as spot commercials, spot promotions, sponsored graphics, pop-up
promotions, mentions, infomercials, and public service announcements were
identified. In addition, commercial programming during live tournament coverage
was compared with golf telecasts at 2 broadcast networks and an all-sports cable
channel. The study measured 3 indicators of the amount of advertising presented
in the telecasts: the number of commercial minutes per hour, the number of
advertisements per hour, and the average duration of spot commercials. Results
of the study were interpreted in terms of advertising clutter.
Keywords: television advertising, spot commercials, commercial minutes per
hour, advertising clutter
The all-sports cable channel is an organizational and programming approach
originated by ESPN in the late 1970s. ESPN’s success with this innovation has led
to the development of other cable channels that produce programming based on
a single sport. The appearance of a number of single-sport channels such as Golf
Channel, The Tennis Channel, Speed Channel, and NFL Network has resulted in
a new generation of televised sports programming. These channels present live
coverage of their featured sport but round out the programming day with related
programs based on news and analysis, original features, and archival footage.
This approach may also be seen in satellite radio. The Sirius XM program lineup
includes a number of single-sport channels: NFL Radio, NASCAR, NHL Home
Ice, PGA Tour Network, and IndyCar Series. A similar trend can be detected in
satellite television distribution of sportscasts, where the multichannel environment
allows development of the single-sport-channel concept. DIRECTV offers Setanta
The author is with the Sports Management Concentration, Menlo College, Atherton, CA.
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Commercial Programming at Golf Channel 485
Sports, a full-time channel devoted entirely to European football, although soccer
and rugby are included. Some individual sports such as Major League Baseball are
featured on satellite and cable channels with only seasonal coverage. The current
study will focus on a single-sport cable channel that offers full-time programming.
At its inception, the nationally televised-sport marketplace comprised the major
broadcast networks, which competed only among themselves. After this successful beginning, the televised-sport marketplace expanded to include cable-channel
sportscasts. ESPN became the leading provider of cable sportscasts with the allsports programming approach. Joined by local and regional sports cable channels,
the televised-sport marketplace developed into a multichannel list of options for
television audiences. The enhanced competition resulted in an overall erosion of
ratings for the broadcast networks. Currently the market has evolved into another
stage that includes single-sport cable channels. These channels are designed to
reach a niche audience, which makes them attractive to advertisers.
Because of the relatively recent advent of this new form of sport media, the
amount of formal research in this area is lacking. The study at hand describes the
types and amounts of commercial programming at Golf Channel and evaluates
those findings in terms of advertising clutter. Results of the analysis offer a basis
to better understand commercial programming strategies and practices at a singlesport cable channel.
Golf Channel Historical Highlights
In the early 1990s, golf was in the midst of a period of substantial growth (Nichols &
Crompton, 2007). Joseph E. Gibbs detected a market for a full-time cable television
channel devoted to golf and launched The Golf Channel in 1995 (Shipnuck, 2007)
with Arnold Palmer as one of the original principal partners. An iconic figure in
golf and sports marketing, Palmer provided name recognition that attracted interest and enhanced brand equity. Ross (2006) found that brand equity was useful in
marketing programs, customer retention, profit margins, brand extensions, favorable
brand choice, and brand loyalty. The Golf Channel gained advertiser support and
reached 10 million households by 1997. Over the years, programming improved
by offering a diverse lineup of shows with an increasing emphasis on live coverage of tournament events (Shipnuck). This strategy created demand and increased
distribution. By 2001 The Golf Channel was known as a niche network and reached
about 40 million households. Advertisers were drawn to its affluent and influential
demographics, which are summarized as 75% male with a median age of 52.8 and a
median household income of $75,840 (Cabletelevision Advertising Bureau, 2009).
In today’s cluttered advertising environment, sponsors often look to narrowcasting
to a niche audience to increase effectiveness (Waterman & Yan, 1999). Masterson
(2005) examined goodness of fit between sponsors and networks airing television
commercials. Results of the study suggested that a clear link between the sponsor
and the program aided recall of brands among viewers, although a creative and
entertaining mismatch was also effective. The Golf Channel’s numerous advertisers for golf equipment, accessories, and travel for golf course destinations make
the channel a good fit for these media buyers and effectively link the commercials
to the programs.
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Comcast acquired 100% ownership of the channel in 2003. This ownership
structure provided the basis for the generation of a partnership with PGA Tour. In
2006 The Golf Channel made a substantial commitment to developing its brand
by signing a 15-year contract with PGA Tour to become the exclusive cable carrier
of televised tournaments. The terms of the contract commenced in January 2007
and established a shared-rights agreement with broadcast networks CBS and NBC
in which The Golf Channel would air first- and second-round coverage of every
tournament and full coverage of 13 events (Shipnuck, 2007). Aided by Comcast’s
offering The Golf Channel as basic service in many communities, distribution has
grown to approximately 82 million households in the United States (Cabletelevision Advertising Bureau, 2009).
The Golf Channel replays many telecasts, “encore presentations,” in prime time
for an audience that has been measured to be 92% unduplicated. When the ratings
of both telecasts were combined, The Golf Channel’s coverages produced ratings
that were ranked favorably with those received by ESPN (Shipnuck, 2007). The
replay serves a dual purpose for programmers of a 24-hour network by increasing
ratings and filling several hours of the programming day for minimal costs.
The 15-year term of the rights agreement also raised questions because these
types of contracts are typically in the 4- to 5-year range (Shipnuck, 2007). The
agreement, which will extend until 2024, does indicate a long-term commitment by
all parties. Surely the career of Tiger Woods was a major factor in consideration of
the plan. Sports fans surveyed for ESPN Sports Poll named Woods as their favorite
athlete in 2006, 2007 (“Year in Sports Business,” 2007), and 2008 (“Year in Sports
Business,” 2008). In a survey of sports business and media executives, 69% rated
Woods as the active athlete with the most marketing potential. In addition, 55%
predicted he would remain so for the next 5 years (Show, 2007). If Woods does break
Jack Nicklaus’s major-tournament victory record, an event on par with breaking
Henry Aaron’s home run record, it is most likely to occur within the next 15 years.
CEO Page Thompson has outlined future directions in developing the Golf
Channel brand. These include video on demand, mobile-phone service, and enhancing the Web site. Although conventional cable television, or linear programming,
will remain the channel’s foundation, these brand extensions offer the consumer
more entertainment options (Logan, 2007). The name of the brand was simplified
in 2008 by dropping “The” and becoming “Golf Channel.” This slight change is
advantageous because it signifies a new phase in the development of the brand
and yet retains the main characteristics and recognizability of the original version.
However, a number of obstacles confront Golf Channel in 2009. Broadcast
network ratings for PGA Tour coverage were down 9% in 2007 compared with 2006
(Show, 2008). After Woods’s injury and withdrawal from competition, ratings for
broadcast network coverage of 12 PGA Tour events averaged a 1.6 rating/4 share,
falling another 36% when compared with the previous year (Show & Ourand,
2008). Traditionally, sponsorship of sporting events has allowed brand managers
to enhance brand awareness and image (Lee & Cho, 2009). However, because of
reductions in sponsorships, all four primary U.S. tours—PGA, LPGA, Champions,
and Nationwide—will play fewer tournaments in 2009. Two areas among the hardest
hit by the current recession, the financial-services and automobile industries, have
been primary media buyers for televised golf and sponsors for golf tournaments.
Corporations that are receiving controversial bailout funding from the government
Commercial Programming at Golf Channel 487
and cutting jobs for employees stand to suffer further degradation of brand image
if they spend heavily on endorsements and golf tournament sponsorships. Players
have been asked by PGA Tour Commissioner Tim Finchem to consider adding
more tournaments to their schedules and to increase participation in sponsor events
such as breakfasts and visiting corporate tents (Show, 2009). This additional player
participation enhances the PGA Tour value to sponsors who may be considering
reducing current expenditures. For example, spot commercials are significantly
less costly than sponsorship fees and may prove to be a more attractive alternative
without the value-added player participation.
The three initiatives outlined by Thompson, video on demand, mobile-phone
service, and enhancing the Web site, make a substantial commitment toward
developing the brand. Ha and Chan-Olmstead (2004) investigated branding on
cable television Web sites. The hybrid media content of Web sites in the form of
e-commerce, information, games, music, movies, and advertising attracted younger
users. Cable television benefited more than broadcast because of its niche-audience
programming and specialized content. In addition, using the Internet as a brandextension platform strengthened viewer loyalty and attracted new subscribers (Ha
& Chan-Olmstead). Effective brand management in the sports industry must take
into account the unique aspects of the market (Fortunato, 2008), and enhancing
the Web site may attract younger viewers, currently a weak demographic for Golf
Channel. All three areas outlined by Thompson are sound brand extensions, but
implementation will sustain considerable costs. Additional expenditures and a
potential loss of revenue may result in increased risk for Golf Channel in 2009.
Commercial Programming
Spot Commercials
The spot-commercial inventory is the primary source of revenue for broadcast
television networks. In recent years, spots aired during the Super Bowl have
become something of a popular cultural phenomenon and are sold at very high rates
(Kelley & Turley, 2004). Television commercials are effective in increasing brand
awareness. Cianfrone and Zhang (2006) conducted an experimental study with
young adults to measure the effect of television commercials on brand awareness
as determined by recall and recognition tests. Four promotional procedures were
investigated: television commercials, athlete endorsements, venue signage, and
combined promotion. Television commercials were the most effective promotions
for increasing brand awareness (Cianfrone & Zhang). Over the past 30 years, two
trends in televised spot commercials have developed: The number of commercial
minutes per hour has increased, and the standard spot is shorter. The number of
commercial minutes per hour for broadcast television grew from approximately
9 minutes and 30 seconds during prime time in the early 1980s to 16 minutes
and 43 seconds in 2000 (Gross, 2003, p. 364), an increase of 81%. Although the
average number of commercial minutes per hour is limited in other countries, the
United States no longer regulates this aspect of programming, except for children’s
television. In compliance with the Children’s Television Act of 1990, the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) limits the amount of commercial matter in
children’s television to 10.5 minutes per hour on weekends and 12 minutes per hour
488 Carroll
on weekdays (FCC, 2009). Concerning Gross’s second observation, the shortened
duration of spot commercials, the standard spot was 60 seconds in the early days
of television, but now most spots are 30 or 15 seconds in length (Siddarth & Chattopadhyay, 1998).
Golf Channel also offers an inventory of “brought to you by,” “presented by,”
and “sponsored by” availabilities. These short advertisements, or “mentions,” are
aired at the beginning or end of a noncommercial program segment. The mentions
display the advertiser’s logo with an announcement of the slogan and typically
have durations of 5 seconds. They are less costly than spot commercials for media
buyers, and up to four mentions are commonly made in a series.
Promotional Programming
Cable channels, like broadcast networks and stations, dedicate a significant portion
of programming to on-air promotions to enhance brand awareness. Walker and
Eastman (2003) cited three functions of on-air promotions: to generate program
sampling, to maintain audience size, and to brand program services. They measured
the number of program promotions during prime time and on weekends aired by
major broadcast networks and compared the data with subsequent program ratings.
Four structural variables investigated included frequency of promotions, construction of single-program or multiple-program promos, distance from the airing of the
promoted program, and length. Of the four predictor variables, only the frequency
of promotions was positively related to program ratings. Demographic data showed
that network promotions were more effective with younger viewers.
Rosengren and Dahlen (2006) investigated brand–slogan matching and found that
slogans help build brand equity by establishing and maintaining brand identity. Effective slogans also provide continuity throughout an advertising campaign and enhance
brand awareness. However, brands exist in a cluttered environment and consumers
may mismatch slogans and brands. Because the competitive interference may benefit
a competing brand, brand–slogan matching is important for accurate linking by the
consumer. This accuracy in linking is related to consistent use of the slogan over
time. The slogan was identified as a carrier of brand equity (Rosengren & Dahlen).
Golf Channel’s use of embedded advertisements offers a relatively new method
of promoting the channel. These graphic promotions are presented during live coverage, thus blurring the distinction between noncommercial and commercial programming. Several varieties of embedded advertisements include pop-up promos,
scrolls, and continuous logo display. The pop-up promo appears as a graphic in a
small portion of the frame and features the name and time of an upcoming show.
Using eye-catching digital video effects, the graphics slide in and out of the frame
and commonly have durations of 10 seconds. Occasionally an announcer will read
copy to accompany the pop-up, but they are usually aired without audio, although
some may have a sound effect. Embedded program promos may alternate with
graphics depicting statistics, scores, and player names. These statistics graphics are
often sponsored and are presented frequently. Another type of embedded promo
features the Golf Channel logo on the scroll appearing at the bottom of the screen.
This scroll reports the latest scores of players in various tournaments and is adapted
from the one originally used on ESPN. In addition, a small version of the Golf
Channel logo, a “bug,” is displayed in a corner of the screen and occasionally flips
to show either “Golf Channel” or “Golf.”
Commercial Programming at Golf Channel 489
Cianfrone, Zhang, Trail, and Lutz (2008) studied the effect of in-game advertisements in sports video games on brand awareness, brand attitude, and purchase
intention. In this experimental study, the treatment group, which was exposed to
the in-game ads, had greater brand awareness than did the control group, which
was not exposed to the ads. However, exposure to ads did not enhance affective and
conative responses, which are linked to favorable attitudes regarding brands and
purchase intentions. Poor attitudes toward the brands and low intent to purchase
of the treatment group may have been the result of annoyance at overexposure to
the ads (Cianfrone et al.). An evaluation of the optimal frequency of promotions
may help Golf Channel programmers maximize the desired effectiveness on brand
awareness and attitude.
Public Service Announcements
Golf Channel is engaged in a number of campaigns to air public service announcements (PSAs) that provide publicity for nonprofit organizations. These include
charitable organizations such as hospitals for children and social and environmental
causes. PSAs not only make a contribution to the community and public interest but
also enhance the image of the channel. For example, Golf Channel produces and airs
PSAs for the Justin Timberlake Shriners Hospital for Children Open, which benefits
the efforts of the Shriners Hospital to provide medical treatment for children. The
celebrity endorsement has proven to be one of the most popular forms of television
commercials. Carlson and Donovan (2008) studied athlete endorsements and applied
social-identity theory to evaluate respondents’ attitudes toward the athlete and the
brand. They proposed a model in which consumers make cognitive associations of
themselves and the athlete. The results of the study suggested that consumers with
stronger identification with an athlete had greater intent to purchase the endorsed
product. Amos, Holmes, and Strutton (2008) examined 32 studies in a meta-analysis
on celebrity and product fit. They found that celebrity trustworthiness, expertise,
and attractiveness had the greatest effects on consumers’ purchase intentions and
attitudes toward the brand and the ad. They also reported that negative celebrity
information is detrimental to an advertising campaign. Erdogan and Baker (2000)
interviewed managers and directors of ad agencies to determine criteria for the
selection of particular celebrities for endorsement contracts. Although the process
of selection was unwritten and informal, popularity, availability, credibility, and
image were among the factors considered.
Golf Channel also programs a series of PSAs that highlight environmentally
friendly golf course maintenance practices titled “Choose Your Course.” Waste
Management occasionally underwrites these PSAs. In addition, PSAs promoting
the National Civil Rights Institute appeared when Uneven Fairways, a documentary that addressed discrimination faced by African American golfers, was in the
program lineup.
Infomercials
Infomercials, or long-form television advertisements, are usually 30-minute
programs (28:30 is the standard total running time) that are designed to attract
channel surfers. Long-form direct-response advertising has become popular since
the FCC removed commercial time restrictions on broadcast networks in 1984.
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Infomercials are now a mainstay on many cable channels (Hawthorne, 1997).
Guidelines devised by the National Infomercial Marketing Association and the
Federal Trade Commission state that infomercials should be identified as paid
advertisements at the beginning and end the program (Chapman & Beltramini,
2000). Hestroni (2003) performed a content analysis and found that infomercials
typically had a problem-solution narrative and repeatedly mentioned functional
qualities that are proximate to values of the shoppers. Golf Channel markets infomercials as “product showcases” and typically programs eight per day for a total of
approximately 4 hours of airtime. The infomercials are presented in 2-hour blocks
in midmorning, late morning, early afternoon, or late afternoon. Chapman and
Beltramini surveyed advertising professionals to determine their opinions on the
optimal amount of time for spot commercials and infomercials. They concluded
that despite the limited reach of cable, infomercials are cost-efficient methods of
television advertising and an attractive alternative to network spot commercials.
Advertising Clutter
Numerous studies have investigated advertising clutter over the past few decades
(e.g., Burke & Srull, 1988; Elliot & Speck, 1998; Riebe & Dawes, 2006; Webb,
1979). Clutter has been studied in a variety of media and defined in a number of
ways. Ha and McCann (2008) report the traditional definition of clutter as the
“presence of a large amount of non-editorial content” (p. 570). Newell and Wu
(2003) state that clutter includes “advertisements, PSA’s, network promos, program
credits” (p. 57). Riebe and Dawes define clutter in radio “as a greater number of
advertisements in a given time” (p. 71). Gross (2003) refers to television advertising
clutter as “an increase in the amount of nonprogram material (mostly commercials)
that occurs within an hour” (p. 364). Elliot and Speck used a subjective, consumeroriented model and defined clutter as “one’s belief that the amount of advertising in
a medium is excessive” (Perceived Ad Clutter section, para. 1). Television advertising clutter generally refers to increases in the amounts of advertising in terms
of the number of commercial minutes per hour, the use of shorter durations, and
increases in the total number of commercials. Although variations of operational
definitions have been used, researchers have typically found negative consequences
regarding advertising effectiveness in a cluttered environment.
Elliot and Speck (1998) studied advertising clutter in the following media:
television, radio, newspapers, magazines, the Yellow Pages, and direct mail.
From a national survey of households they measured consumer attitudes toward
advertisements and ad avoidance. Perception of advertising clutter was highest in
television and direct mail. The highest level of communication disruption problems
occurred in television and magazines. No significant demographic differences were
found in identifying consumers likely to consider advertising excessive. From an
information-processing perspective excessive advertising acts as noise and diminishes effectiveness, although it is difficult to detect long-term threshold effects. The
researchers note that not all ads are perceived as clutter because some consumers
are interested in the advertisements.
Ha (1996) studied clutter in consumer magazines and defined it as “the amount
of advertisements in a given advertising medium.” The study examined three
Commercial Programming at Golf Channel 491
dimensions of clutter: quantity, competitiveness, and intrusiveness. Quantity refers
to the number of commercials and proportion of advertising space in a medium.
Competitiveness is defined as the similarity between products and proximity to
competing brands. Intrusiveness is observed to the extent that it disrupts the flow
of the editorial unit. The experimental study yielded results that suggested consumers’ attitudes toward advertising are adversely affected by high quantities and
more intrusive ads. The competitive dimension demonstrated no significant effect.
Kent (1993) noted two trends that have increased clutter levels in television
advertising: more commercial minutes per hour and shorter ads. The experimental
study examined clutter effects for directly competing brands and noncompetitive
brands. Standard network advertising policies include avoiding competitive interference by not placing competitor ads in the same pod. However, commercials of
direct competitors may appear in consecutive pods. Local ads not under network
control may also contribute to interference. Results of the study showed that recall
of specific ad content decreased with an increase in competitive clutter. Advertisers
were warned that more focused demographic targeting could inadvertently diminish
effectiveness by placing ads in a competitively cluttered media context.
In addition to reducing recall and recognition of specific television commercials, clutter may also contribute to ad-avoidance behavior. Elliot and Speck (1998)
defined ad avoidance as consumer behavior that reduces exposure to ad content,
such as switching channels with a remote control, “zapping,” or leaving the viewing area (Clutter Related Effects section, para. 3). In addition to zapping and leaving the room, Danaher (1995) reported a variety of ad-avoidance behaviors such
as “zipping,” or fast-forwarding video playback; reading; and talking. Elliot and
Speck also found that advertising may disrupt message processing in the case of
in-program commercial breaks and that communication problems are encountered
because television advertisements may hinder a consumer’s search for specific
content. Their study indicated that the effect of clutter is a lower attitude toward
advertising or an increase in ad avoidance. Siddarth and Chattopadhyay (1998)
also found that the amount of repetition of an ad influenced the probability of zapping. Webcasts of primetime television shows have fewer and briefer commercials,
which may be factors in television viewers’ switching to Webcasts (Robins, 2006).
Thus for the purposes of this study, television advertising clutter is defined as
an increase in the amount of advertising as determined by three indicators: a greater
number of commercial minutes per hour, a greater number of advertisements per
hour, and a shorter average duration of spot commercials. Two measurements of
the amount of commercial programming will be taken: 1 day’s programming (24
continuous hours) and live golf tournament coverage. For comparison, the amount
of advertising during live golf tournament coverage from two broadcast networks
and an all-sports cable channel will be used.
H1: The amount of advertising on Golf Channel is higher than their competitors’ and constitutes advertising clutter.
The research questions for the study are as follow:
RQ 1: What are the types and frequencies of advertisements?
RQ 2: What is the average number of commercial minutes per hour?
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RQ 3: What is the average number of advertisements per hour?
RQ 4: What is the average duration of spot commercials?
Method
Content analysis has been employed in a number of mass-communication research
studies (e.g., Bae, 2000; Hestroni, 2003; Liebler & Smith, 1997). The inherent taxonomical qualities of content analysis make it a useful methodology for initial studies
of new forms of sports media such as a single-sport cable channel. The purpose of
this study was to describe commercial programming strategies and practices at Golf
Channel. The study measured the amount of advertising aired on Golf Channel to
determine whether that level constituted advertising clutter. Content analysis is an
appropriate methodology for hypothesis testing of this order. The study at hand
analyzed the contents of 24 continuous hours of programming on Golf Channel
on April 18 and 19, 2009. The weekend chosen for the analysis was randomly
selected from a 10-weekend sampling frame. The sampling frame was established
in-season for professional golf to include the channel’s premiere programming—
live coverage of tournament golf. The 6 a.m. Saturday to 6 a.m. Sunday 24-hour
period was recorded because the published program schedule conforms to those
times and this time period typically features live coverage. Recordings of all the
telecasts were made on DVD-R; the digital format facilitated timing the elements
of the analysis. Back-ups were recorded on VHS tapes and were used to cover any
time lost while changing discs. Of the available single-sport cable channels, Golf
Channel was selected because it is the most mature entity and has had more time
to establish practices.
For comparison, telecasts of one round of live golf coverage from two major
broadcast networks and an all-sports cable channel were also recorded and analyzed for amounts of advertising. These telecasts were WGC CA Championship
on NBC, PGA Northern Trust Open on CBS, and LPGA Kraft Nabisco Open on
ESPN2. The comparison telecasts were chosen because they were competitors’
productions aired during the sampling frame. In addition to the 24 hours of Golf
Channel programming, these telecasts had a collective duration of 8 hours and 44
minutes, which combined for a total of 32 hours and 44 minutes of content analyzed in the study. Major championship coverage of the Masters Tournament was
deleted from the sampling frame because it has limited commercial interruption,
a departure from normal programming practice.
Categories chosen for items in the analysis were spot commercials, spot promotions, sponsored graphics, pop-up promos, mentions, PSAs, and infomercials.
These categories are mutually exclusive and exhaustive. All categories were analyzed in terms of number and length except sponsored graphic advertisements and
promotions. Sponsored graphics such as the update scroll and graphic promos—for
example, the Golf Channel bug—were not included in the time analysis because
they are presented almost continuously and often appear simultaneously. Each
separate appearance of a sponsored graphic was calculated in the number of advertisements. In regard to the third indicator of advertising clutter, the average duration
of spot commercials, spots purchased by advertising clients and spot promos were
included in the analysis.
Commercial Programming at Golf Channel 493
The study at hand was based on a pilot study of Golf Channel programming
conducted in October 2008. That initial study also consisted of 24 hours of continuous programming. The pilot study helped establish criteria for the current study
and was useful in refining data-collection and -coding techniques.
Results
The results of the first portion of the analysis are presented in Table 1. These data
represent the types of advertisements, frequency of occurrences of each type for 24
hours, frequency of occurrences per hour, and percentage of all advertisements by
type. The study identified seven different types of advertisement on Golf Channel,
which corresponded to the categories of the analysis. A total of 1,585 advertisements
were presented in the 24-hour sample, with the sponsored graphic representing the
most frequently occurring type. Sponsored graphics such as update scrolls and leader
boards include the sponsor’s logo and are typically of short duration (less than 20
seconds). These advertisements are embedded in the program and are less costly
than spot commercials for sponsors. The 821 sponsored graphics in the 24-hour
sample were aired at an average rate of 34.2 per hour and constituted 52% of all ads.
Spot commercials are the standard of television advertising; 408 were tabulated in this portion of the analysis. Spot commercials accounted for 26% of all
advertisements and were presented at an average rate of 17 per hour. In addition,
117 spot promotions for Golf Channel and its partner, PGA Tour, were counted.
These promos primarily featured upcoming shows, but other products such as the
Golf Channel Web site were also promoted. Pop-up promos represent a new type
of embedded advertisement, which is rooted in Internet advertising and adapted
for television. These brief promos are embedded in the live coverage and feature
upcoming shows. Mentions are another low-cost form of television advertising,
and Golf Channel presented 86 mentions in the 24-hour period, which constituted
6% of all ads.
Table 2 shows the type of programming and data recorded for the three clutter
indicators: commercial minutes per hour, advertisements per hour, and average
duration of spot commercials. A comparison of clutter indicators for live tournament
coverage and the average of 24 hours of programming shows that live coverage
had fewer commercial minutes per hour (18:03 vs. 22:46, for a 20% difference)
Table 1 Advertisements on Golf Channel for 24 Hours
Type of advertisement
Sponsored graphic
Spot commercial
Spot promo
Mention
Pop-up ad
Public service announcement
Infomercial
Total
Frequency
821
408
177
86
63
22
8
1,585
Per hour
34.2
17.0
7.4
3.6
2.6
0.9
0.3
Percentage
52
26
11
5
4
1
1
100
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and fewer advertisements per hour (62.7 vs. 66.0, for a 5% difference) than the
average of 24 hours of programming. However, live coverage presented spot commercials with an average duration of 26.1 seconds, which was 11% shorter than
those aired during the 24-hour period. Overall, live coverage, Golf Channel’s premium programming, was slightly less cluttered than normal programming. Of the
three indicators, commercial minutes per hour has been the one most studied and
is perhaps the most powerful in denoting clutter. Golf Channel’s very high 24-hour
average of commercial minutes per hour results in part from eight infomercials,
which contributed approximately 4 hours of commercial time to the analysis.
The data presented in Table 3 show the three clutter indicators for live coverage on Golf Channel, CBS, ESPN2, and NBC. For the first indicator, commercial
minutes per hour, Golf Channel’s level was the highest and ranked 15% higher
than the closest competitor, CBS. Golf Channel allocated 18:03 to commercials, or
30% of programming time. For the second indicator, advertisements per hour, Golf
Channel was also the highest and ranked 26% higher than the closest competitor,
CBS. However, for the third indicator, average duration of spot commercials, Golf
Channel’s was measured to have the longest duration of the four telecasts studied,
a contraindication of advertising clutter. Golf Channel has a few 120-second spots
that raise the average, but the 30-second spot was still the most popular among all
the networks studied. From an analysis of Nielsen data, Street & Smith’s Sports
Business Journal listed the 10 networks with the fewest commercial minutes per
hour during prime time for 2007. Five of the 10 were sports networks. These
included Fox Sports en Espanol, ESPN2, ESPN, ESPN Classic, and NFL Network.
The mean number of nonprogram minutes per hour for the five networks was 12:02
(“Year in Sports Business,” 2007).
Table 2 Live Coverage and 24-Hour Programming
Programming
Live coverage
Average of 24
hours
Commercial
minutes per hour
18:03
Advertisements
per hour
62.7
Average
duration of spot
commercials
26.1 seconds
22:46
66.0
29.2 seconds
Table 3 Commercial Programming in Televised Golf
Network
Golf Channel
CBS
ESPN2
NBC
Commercial
minutes per hour
18:03
15:23
14:48
13:15
Advertisements
per hour
62.7
46.4
38.5
35.8
Average
duration of spot
commercials
26.1 seconds
22.8 seconds
25.9 seconds
26.0 seconds
Commercial Programming at Golf Channel 495
Discussion
The current study was conducted to investigate commercial programming strategies and practices at Golf Channel, a single-sport cable channel. In response to
the first research question, regarding the types and frequencies of advertising, the
wide variety and high total number of advertisements for 24 hours indicates that
Golf Channel’s strategy is to maximize commercial potential at the risk of creating
a high-clutter advertising environment. Sponsored graphics were frequently used
in live coverage and other programs such as news and analysis. These embedded
advertisements are innovative production techniques using digital video effects.
However, competitive interference was occasionally observed with the presentation of competitors’ ads in close proximity or positioned adjacently. A total of 585
spot commercials and spot promos aired during the sample period, yielding a rate
of 24.4 spots per hour. All networks presented pop-ups and mentions, but Golf
Channel presented more than the others in both categories. With approximately
4 hours per day devoted to infomercials, Golf Channel increases total time for
advertising, which is a strong indicator of clutter. Of the few PSAs aired, less than
one per hour, most were shown during less desirable times of day. A higher priority
for these announcements aired for the good of the community could benefit these
organizations and would enhance the Golf Channel’s brand equity.
To test the hypothesis, that the amount of advertising at Golf Channel constitutes advertising clutter, the amount of advertising was determined by three measures: the average number of commercial minutes per hour, the average number of
advertisements per hour, and the average duration of spot commercials. The results
indicated that the amount of commercial programming at Golf Channel was greater
than that of its competitors in two of the three indicators of advertising clutter: the
average number of commercial minutes per hour and the average number of advertisements per hour. The data support the hypothesis that the amount of advertising
at Golf Channel constitutes advertising clutter in the categories of the number of
commercial minutes per hour and the number of advertisements per hour. The data
obtained in the current study did not support the hypothesis in the third category,
duration of spot commercials. Golf Channel presented spot commercials that were of
longer duration than those of competitors, a contraindication of advertising clutter.
Golf Channel has demonstrated a distinctive approach to televised sports programming with the implementation of a single-sport cable channel. The channel
has also made a substantial commitment to developing its brand with its long-term
rights agreement with PGA Tour. Proposed brand extensions such as video on
demand, mobile-phone service, and enhancing the Web site increase consumer
entertainment options. However, the results of this study indicate that Golf Channel has a cluttered advertising environment, and, as other studies have shown,
advertising clutter may lead to decreased recognition and recall of ads by viewers.
Johnson and Cobb-Walgren (1994) conducted an experimental study that investigated recognition and recall of television commercials across various age ranges.
Results indicated that older viewers were more negatively affected by clutter than
younger viewers. Given Golf Channel’s demographics, the negative effects of a
high-clutter environment may be increased. Audience members are also at risk for
developing a lower attitude toward advertising, which may lead to ad avoidance.
Pichot, Tribou, and O’Reilly (2008) noted the importance of establishing positive
496 Carroll
affect for effective advertising. Repetition reinforced a positive emotional attachment, provided the message presentation rate was reasonable. The high number
of advertisements and high level of commercial minutes per hour at Golf Channel
may be a cause of concern for advertisers, programmers, and viewers.
One finding of the study regarding the duration of spot commercials did not
support the continuation of the trend of shortened durations noted in previous
research (e.g., Kent, 1993; Siddarth & Chattopadhyay, 1998). Golf Channel’s
average spot duration was 29.2 seconds for 24 hours and 26.1 for live coverage.
Both durations are consistent with the 30-second standard that has been used in
television spot-commercial inventories for the past few decades. Of all the spots
aired by Golf Channel, 66.7% had durations of 30 seconds. The 15-second spot
commercial was the second-most popular and accounted for 20.5% of the inventory. The original standard, a 60-second spot commercial, accounted for 6.9% of
all spots. Based on the results of this study, the 30-second spot retains its primacy
in commercial programming. However, the increased number of mentions, pop-up
promos, and sponsored graphics of short durations combine to accelerate the pace
of advertisements presented and contribute to advertising clutter.
The importance of television advertising clutter has become magnified in these
times of declining advertising revenue. An excessive number of spots may inhibit
orders from media buyers (Ourand, 2007). In addition, advertisers have requested
ad ratings to obtain measurements of the number of viewers of the commercials.
Implementation of ad ratings would signal an opportunity for programmers to evaluate current inventory practices and consider instituting low-clutter strategies in the
assignment of commercial time. Low-clutter programming, “with limited commercial
interruption,” has been used recently in telecasts such as the Masters Tournament
and may prove to be an approach that increases the effectiveness of advertisements.
The use of embedded advertising was also measured in this analysis. Embedded
advertising occurs when programmers insert commercials and promotions into the
noncommercial programming. Several types of embedded advertisements noted
in this study included sponsored graphics, pop-up promos, and the ID bug. These
embedded ads allow programmers to maximize commercial inventory, as well as
provide potent promotional tools. Another type of embedded advertising is the
incidental advertising that occurs when venue signage and logos worn by players
are shown in the television frame. Almost all venues display some sponsored signs,
and players wear logos of sponsors on shirts, caps, and shoes. Popular golfers appear
frequently on the telecasts and are paid high salaries for their endorsements. Future
research on embedded advertising may increase understanding of this new form.
Some of the limitations of the study include the sample size and focus on commercial programming. An analysis that examined several telecasts throughout the
year would offer an understanding of seasonal trends. The study did not examine
noncommercial programming. Some of these original productions, such as news
and analysis programming and reality shows, warrant scholarly inquiry.
Case Questions
• Given the differences in individual perceptions of advertising clutter, how
does one develop a general definition of clutter that accounts for subjective
responses of audience members?
Commercial Programming at Golf Channel 497
• Advertising spending is down in the current economic climate. Is this a good
time for programmers to restructure inventories and rates to create low-clutter
environments?
• Should the FCC consider reinstating its policies regarding limitations on the
number of commercial minutes per hour allowed?
• Advertisers are concerned with ad-avoidance behaviors among viewers, such
as zapping. What are the programming strategies that diminish ad avoidance
among viewers?
• How effective are embedded advertisements, and to what extent do they contribute to advertising clutter?
• How important is the practice of airing PSAs in enhancing a network’s brand
equity?
• Advertisers have recently advocated the implementation of ratings for the
commercials themselves. Broadcasters have opposed the implementation of
ad ratings because they are lower than the program ratings due to zapping. Do
advertisers have the right to negotiate rates based on ad ratings?
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