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MACROMOLECULES (CARBOHYDRATES AND LIPIDS) IB Bio I Van Roekel 9/30/15 1 BILL - MACROMOLECULES Why is carbon one of the most essential elements to living organisms? Carbon atoms can form up to four covalent bonds with various elements. This allows for a diversity of stable elements to be formed and makes carbon the base of all organic molecules 2 CARBON (C) •Carbon has 4 electrons in outer shell. •Carbon can form up to 4 covalent bonds with 4 other atoms (elements). •Usually with C, H, O or N. •Allows it to be the base for a diversity of stable compounds to form •Example: CH4(methane), C6H12O6 (Glucose) 3 ORGANIC COMPOUNDS Organic Compounds – Compounds that contain carbon and are found in living organisms Life is based on Macromolecules, or large organic molecules. 4 MACROMOLECULES •Each Macromolecule (polymer) is composed of smaller subunits, or building blocks (monomers), that can be viewed individually •Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) monosaccharides •Proteins Amino Acids •Lipids Fatty Acids & Glycerol •Nucleic Acids Nucleotides 5 WHAT DO ORGANISMS DO WITH THESE MACROMOLECULES? oUse the energy stored in macromolecules to carry out various chemical reactions in the body, or for their metabolism oMetabolism – All of an organism’s/cell’s chemical reactions o Various metabolic pathways are used to breakdown/form molecules in the body 6 TWO TYPES OF METABOLISM Catabolism Anabolism Reactions that RELEASE ENERGY by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compound Reactions that CONSUME ENERGY to build complicated molecules from simpler ones Occurs by hydrolysis reactions - Separates polymers into monomers by “adding water” Occurs by condensation reactions - Forms polymers by combining monomers by “removing water”. Water used as a reactant Water is a product 7 QUESTION: HOW ARE MACROMOLECULES FORMED? 8 ANSWER: CONDENSATION REACTIONS Also called “dehydration synthesis” Forms polymers by combining monomers by “removing water”. HO H HO H H2O HO H 9 QUESTION: HOW ARE MACROMOLECULES SEPARATED OR DIGESTED? 10 ANSWER: HYDROLYSIS Separates polymers into monomers by “adding water” HO H H2O HO H HO H 11 12 BILL What is metabolism? Describe the two types of metabolism. Metabolism is the totality of an organism’s, or a cell’s, chemical reactions. There are two types of metabolic reactions. The first is catabolism, in which molecules are broken down from complex versions to simpler ones and release energy in the process. The second is anabolism, in which complex molecules are built from simpler ones and energy is consumed. 13 MACROMOLECULES •Each Macromolecule (polymer) is composed of smaller subunits, or building blocks (monomers), that can be viewed individually •Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) monosaccharides •Proteins Amino Acids •Lipids Fatty Acids & Glycerol •Nucleic Acids Nucleotides 14 Glucose This is the basic mono-saccharide (single sugar molecule) that is used in respiration. It stores chemical energy. General formula: C6H12O6 We count the carbons in clockwise direction, starting with the first carbon after the oxygen atom in the ring. Ribose This is the basic mono-saccharide (single sugar molecule). It is found in RNA and a similar version in DNA. General formula: C5H10O5 We count the carbons in clockwise direction, starting with the first carbon after the oxygen atom in the ring. A generalized amino acid All amino acids consist of an amino group, a carboxyl group, a carbon and hydrogen molecule, and a unique R-group. Some are polar, others non-polar and their different properties determine their interactions and the shape of the final protein. Double Bond Hydroxyl Group Amino Group (-NH2) The amino group is one of the reasons why nitrogen is an important element in living things. Carboxylic Acid Group (-COOH) The carboxylic acid group contains an oxygen double-bonded to the carbon and a hydroxyl group (-OH) that can be lost to form new bonds. Methionine: an amino acid There are 22 different protein-making amino acids, though only 20 are coded for in genetic code. Methionine is an important amino acid as it is coded by the START codon in mRNA (AUG). This means that is is the first amino acid in all polypeptide chains as it is the first produced in transcription in the ribosomes. Sulphur forms strong bonds (disulphide bridges) with other Scontaining amino acids. Although methionine (Met) has quite a large Rgroup, we can still identify the amino group and carboxylic acid group on the amino acid. The simplest amino acid is glycine, with H in the Rgroup position. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methionine Lipids (Fatty Acids & Glycerol) Fatty acid chains can be of many lengths, extended by adding CH2 units. They are an efficient storage of energy and bond with glycerol (a simple sugar alcohol) to make triglycerides – lipids. A generalized Nucleotide Individual nucleotides consist of three major parts: one phosphate group, one 5carbon monosaccharide, and a single nitrogenous base. Four possible nitrogenous bases in DNA (Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, and Cytosine) Four possible nitrogenous bases in RNA (Adenine, Guanine, Uracil, and Cytosine) 20 Which molecule represents ribose? D What molecule does letter C represent? Glycerol What is molecule B? Amino Acid CARBOHYDRATES CARBOHYDRATES Class of molecules ranging from small sugar molecules (monosaccharides) to large sugar molecules (polysaccharides). Examples: A. monosaccharide (monomer) B. disaccharide C. polysaccharide 23 CHARACTERISTICS OF CARBOHYDRATES Consist of carbon, hydrogen, & oxygen in a ring formation Monosaccharides combine through condensation reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharides Functions: Energy containing molecules Some provide structure CARBOHYDRATES Monosaccharide: monomers of carbohydrates are composed of a single sugar molecule General structure of monosaccarhides: (CH2O)n n usually equals 3 (trioses), 5 (pentoses) or 6 (hexoses) Examples: *glucose (C6H12O6) *Fructose Galactose Deoxyribose *Ribose *State one function of carbohydrate 25 FUNCTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDES •Glucose: main fuel (source of energy) for cellular respiration (process of extracting energy from molecules) •Fructose : Found in plant cells, makes them sweet, provides energy. •Ribose: Structural component of RNA 26 TWO MINUTE CONVO Why is it beneficial for fruits to produce fructose, which is a sweet tasting monosaccharide? 27 BILL - Identify these organic molecules. fatty acid ribose glucose amino acid Different Forms of Glucose CARBOHYDRATES Disaccharide: two sugar unit Examples: *Sucrose (glucose+fructose) *Lactose (glucose+galactose) *Maltose (glucose+glucose) glucose glucose * State one function of Carbohydrate 34 FUNCTIONS OF DISACCHARIDES •Sucrose: Main carbohydrate in plant sap, nourishes all the parts of the plant •Lactose: Sugar molecules found in milk, provides nutrients to offspring •Maltose: Important intermediate in the digestions of starch and energy storage 35 CARBOHYDRATES Polysaccharide: polymers of carbohydrates composed of many sugar units Examples: *starch (bread, potatoes) *glycogen (beef muscle) *cellulose (lettuce, corn) glucose glucose glucose glucose cellulose glucose glucose glucose *State one Function of Carbohydrate glucose 36 FUNCTIONS OF POLYSACCHARIDES •Starch: storage of glucose in the roots and other tissues of plants. Consists entirely of glucose. •Cellulose: Forms cable-like fibers in walls that enclose plant cells, known as cell wall. Composed of glucose, but monomers are linked in different orientation •Glycogen: storage of glucose in liver and muscle cells. Consists entirely of glucose, more branched than starch 37 38 39 BILL - CARBOHYDRATES Discuss the properties (structure and function) of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharide. And Give an example of each one. Monosaccharides – single sugar units, the monomers of carbohydrates. Primary source of energy for cells, some can be structural. Glucose is the main source of energy for cells Disaccharides – two sugar units. Nutritional molecules for plants and in milk for offspring. Sucrose is the main source of nutrients for all parts of a plant Polysaccharides – Multiple sugar units. Storage of glucose in plants and animals, also structural component of cell wall. Glycogen stores glucose in the muscle and liver cells of animals 40 CONDENSATION REACTIONS IN CARBOHYDRATES •Condensation molecules will remove water to allow two monosaccharides to bond together. •One monomer gives up a hydroxyl group (-OH), the other gives up a hydrogen molecule from a hydroxyl group (-H) •Leaves an oxygen molecule to bind two monosaccharides, forming what is called a glycosidic bond 41 42 Link 45 HYDROLYSIS OF CARBOHYDRATES •The majority of carbohydrates in food are too large to enter our cells, so they must be broken down •Hydrolysis breaks poly-/disaccharides down using water as a reactant •Hydrolase – enzyme that catalyzes/causes the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds between carbohydrates •Exposes a negatively charged oxygen on one monomer, and a positively charged carbon on the other monomer. •One hydrogen (-H) attaches to the negative oxygen on one monomer and a hydroxyl (-OH) attaches to the positive carbon on the other 46 Hydrolysis of a Disaccharide 48 ANNOTATE A CONDENSATION REACTION OF THE TWO MONOMERS BELOW Oxygen is used to combine the negative and positive carbons in a glycosidic bond - -H is attracted to negative -OH and breaks away, leaving its electrons behind, making carbon negative. -OH molecule breaks away from carbon and takes electrons, becoming negatively charged, while carbon becomes positive + H2O -H and –OH combing to form water 49 ANNOTATE A HYDROLYSIS REACTION OF THE MALTOSE MOLECULE BELOW - Hydrolase breaks the glycosidic bond between oxygen and carbon. The oxygen takes the shared electrons, making oxygen negative and the carbon positive + H OH A hydrogen molecule from water joins the negative oxygen. The hydroxyl molecule from the water joins the positive carbon 50 LIPIDS LIPIDS General term for compounds which are not soluble in water. Remember: “Lipids store the most energy” Examples: 1. Fats 2. Phospholipids 3. Oils 4. Waxes 5. Steroid hormones 6. Triglycerides 55 Characteristics of Lipids • Composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen • Greater than 2:1 ratio of H:O • Building blocks are fatty acids and glycerol. – 3 types of fatty acids (saturated, unsaturated, and polyunsaturated) • Not considered a polymer, because fatty acids and glycerol molecules are not repeating • Functions – Energy storage molecules – Insulators – Phospholipids part of cell membrane Glycerol Fatty Acid Structure •Carboxyl group (COOH) forms the acid. •“R” group is a hydrocarbon chain (ranges from 11-23 carbons). •Ends with a methyl group (-CH3) A Representative Fatty Acid Carboxyl Group Hydrocarbon chain Methyl Group FATTY ACIDS There are two kinds of fatty acids you may see these on food labels: Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds (bad) saturated O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 Unsaturated fatty acids: double bonds (good) • Monounsaturated (one double bond) • Polyunsaturated (two or more double bonds) O unsaturated C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH 60 Unsaturated Fatty Acid Saturated Fatty Acid SATURATED FATTY ACIDS No double bonds between carbon atoms in hydrocarbon chain (straight chain) The structure is saturated with hydrogen ions (carry as many hydrogen atoms as they can) Found in animal products (butter, bacon, fat in red meats) Generally solid at room temperatures Diet rich in saturated fats is a factor in cardiovascular disease saturated O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 62 UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS Contains double bonds, which results in two empty spaces where hydrogens should be. Creates a bend/kink in the hydrocarbon chain Typically come from plants (olive oil) and are liquids at room temperature Monounsaturated – has one double bond within the hydrocarbon chain Polyunsaturated – has two or more double bonds within hydrocarbon chain monounsaturated O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH 63 BILL What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids? •Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon molecules in the hydrocarbon chain and are said to be saturated with hydrogen atoms. Typically solids •Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds between carbon molecules in the hydrocarbon chain. There are two types, monounsaturated (1 double bond) and polyunsaturated (2 or more double bonds). Typically liquids. 64 Unsaturated Fatty Acid Saturated Fatty Acid TRANS VS. CIS UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS Cis Unsaturated Trans Unsaturated Hydrogen atoms are on same side of double bond Hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of double bond Naturally occurring Result of hydrogenation of natural fats (manual addition of hydrogen atoms) 66 TRANS VS. CIS UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS Affects the shape of the fatty acid molecules Cis Unsaturated Trans Unsaturated Double bonds result in a kink in hydrocarbon chain, causing the fatty acid to be curved No kink in hydrocarbon chain, causing the fatty acids to be straight Typically liquid and more flexible Healthier (omega-3) Typically solid (like saturated) and less flexible Less healthy (fast food oils, margarine) 67 TRANS VS. CIS UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS 68 Synthesis of a Triglyceride Condensation of Fatty Acids and Glycerol • 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol molecule combine to form a triglyceride (fats/oils) • 1 Hydrogen (from hydroxyl group) in glycerol and the hydroxyl group from each fatty acid leave as water • Exposed bonds form an ester bond • This happens for each fatty acid, which results in the formation of a triglyceride (with 3 ester bonds) and 3 water molecules 70 71 Link 72 TRIGLYCERIDES glycerol H fatty acids O H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 O H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 O H-C----O C-CH -CH -CH -CH 2 2 2 H 73 2 minute Convo • Have you heard of Omega-3, and Omega-6 Fatty acids? Do you think they are saturated or unsaturated? Cis- or TransConservation? 74 LIPIDS Six functions of lipids: 1. Long term energy storage 2. Major component of membranes (phospholipids) 3. Chemical messengers (hormones/steroids) 4. Protection against heat loss (insulation) 5. Protection against physical shock 6. Protection against water loss (waxy layers of plants) 75 LIPIDS – ENERGY STORAGE Triglycerides (fats and oils) are energy storage molecules Body stores excess food as fat in adipose tissue Very efficient energy storage molecule Stores approximately twice as much energy as carbohydrate (38 kJ/g compared to 17 kJ/g) However, they are much harder to digest/breakdown so it is less efficient at releasing energy 76 Carbohydrates vs Lipids for energy storage A Phospholipid Phospholipids • Composed of 2 fatty acid tails (hydrophobic), and a Phosphate group bound with a glycerol molecule (hydrophilic) • Form lipid bilayer of cell membrane • Serves as boundary between cell and external environment Phospholipid Bilayer 81 Hormones/Steroids • Steroids & hormones are lipids whose carbon skeleton is bent to form a ring structure. • They vary in function but most act as chemical messengers that control/affect various parts of the body – Regulate metabolism (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone) – Immune response (Cortisol) – Reproduction (Estrogen & Testosterone) • Example: Cholesterol is a component of the animal cell membrane and is a precursor to make other steroids 83 Insulation • Lipids are important for thermal insulation as they have the ability to retain heat • Cold–climate animals form layers of blubber to help stay warm • Some seals have 30% of body mass from blubber 84 What are some uses of lipids in living things? 2 minute convo • Discuss 3 different types of functions of lipids 86 What are some uses of lipids in living things? Carbohydrates vs Lipids for energy storage