Download Total Notes for chem - Catawba County Schools

Notes for chem. All 2
Chemistry Notes
Factor Label Method:
1. Draw skeleton tree2. Put known quantity in top left quadrant including units
3. “ Walk the Dog” whichever unit is on top line in
the top left quandrant goes to the bottom area in the next quandrant to the left(the next
conversion step area)
4. Place conversion unit you are going to (looking for) on top of the conversion step area
. Make conversion by making a true statement,e.g. 1 ft.= 12 inches. Unit/Unit = 1 so
unit cancels out.
Metric Conversions:
King
Kilo
Henry
Hecto
Died
Deka
Mysteriously
Meter,Liter,Gram
Drinking
deci
K
1.0x 103
h
1.0 x 102
da
1.0 x 101
m,L,g
1.0 x 100
d
1.0 x 10 -1
Chocolate
Milk
centi
milli
c
m
1.0 x 10-2
1.0 x 10-3
ch
Part 1, notes :
- the nucleus of the atom contains the protons and the neutrons, the electrons are found at
some distance from the nucleus of the atom. The charge on one proton is + 1 ,one
electron has a charge of –1. the positive charges attract the negative charges.
ch 1 notes (part 3 cont.) the nucleus of the atom contains the protons and the neutrons, the electrons are found at
some distance from the nucleus of the atom. The charge on one proton is + 1 ,one
electron has a charge of –1. the positive charges attract the negative charges.
Types of Compounds:
WRITING BINARY FORMULAS FOR COMPOUNDS:
Ionic compounds: binary
Step 1. Write down the symbols and the charges as superscripts[ note: the charge of
metal comes from the group # ,non metals get charge from group number minus 18];
Sodium Chloride
e.g.
Na+1 Cl-1
Step 2. Cross the charges and bring them down to become subscripts.
e.g.
Na-1 Cl +1
Step 3. Drop signs,ones, and forms of one( reduce to smallest whole number ratio of
subscripts.
e.g.
NaCl
NOTES ON NUCLEAR MATERIAL
Atom- Consists of mostly empty space, contains a nucleus made up of
protons and neutrons which is surrounded by orbiting electrons.
PROTONS- positively charged particles in the nucleus of the atom.
protons are made up of quarks,(two up quarks and one down quarks, up
quarks have a positive 1/3 charge, and down quarks have a negative
charge so the net charge on a proton is a positive one charge.)
NEUTRONS-Neutrons are particles in nucleus of the atom which have no
charge (Neutrons are made up of two down quarks and one up quark, hence
no charge.)
ELECTRONS-Small particle which orbits the nucleus, has a charge of
negative one, has a mass about 1/2000 of the mass of the proton.
Nucleus of the atom is approximately one trillionth of the volume of
the atom. (about 1.0x 10 exp-25 cm) the atomic size
is about 1.0 x
10exp-13 cm.
TRULY ELEMENTARY PARTICLES-Particles which are believed to be the
smallest indivisible parts of matter.This group of particles are called
LEPTONS.
LEPTONS-SIX KINDS KNOWN SO FARELECTRON-see above
NEUTRINO-discovered by ENRICO FERMI in 1931,very small particle which
is emitted when protons or neutrons are split apart. Neutrinos are
thought to have almost no mass.
Positron- also called an antielectron, small particle which has the
same mass as an electron but has a positive charge equal in magnitude
to that of an electron but opposite in charge.
MESONS-THREE KINDS-TAU,PI,AND MU-SMALL PARTICLES WHICH ARE BELIEVED TO
BE MADE UP OF ONE QUARK AND ONE ANTIQUARK ! PI mesons, or pions, are
thought to be force carriers which bind GLUONS together.
HADRONS- The sub-atomic particles which have complex structure(which
means that they can be split into smaller pieces). There are over two
hundred known particles in this category.
QUARKS- Relatively large particles which make up protons and
electrons. There are six kinds ( or flavors !) of quark. They are
TRUTH(top),Beauty(bottom),UP,DOWN,Strange,and Charm.(or
CHARMED).UP,TOP,AND CHARM have a positive 2/3 charge, while Down
,Bottom ,and Strange have a negative 1/3 charge. Quarks are thought to
be held together by Gluons.
BARYONS-Protons and neutrons (and a few other particles)-large
particles made up of quarks.
FORCE CARRIERS-particles which are responsible for carrying forces:
Gluon: small particle which has no mass,responsible for carrying
binding energy between quarks. One of the" GLUES OF THE UNIVERSE".
Pion: The other "GLUE OF THE UNIVERSE", thought to be responsible for
carrying binding energy between Gluons .
BOSONS- W+, W-,Z, Particles thought to carry the energy
which makes
radioactive decay possible. Bosons are about one hundred
times as
massive as a proton.
PHOTONS- Particles which carry the force we call electromagnetic
radiation(light). Photons exhibit
the properties of solid particles
and properties of certain wave phenomena at the same time!
TIME LINE FOR HISTORY OF ATOM
400 B.C.-Democritus coined the term "atom ",from Greek word for
indivisible part
1810- John Dalton- proposed the" law of multiple proportions", elements
are made of atoms.
1850- Guy Lussac - volumes of gas,studied how chemicals combine
1859- Robert Bunsen and Robert Kirchoff- invented spectroscope,
discovered peculiar properties of light.
1885- Goldstein- canal ray tube,
1896-Thomson,J.J.- discovered electron and proton with cathode ray tube
1896- Henri Bequerel- discovered radiation
1904- Nagaoka- proposed what became known as the "planetary model"
for
the structure of the atom.
1905-
Einstien,Albert- wrote 5 papers as a graduate student-among
these was the Photoelectric effect for which he later recieved
a Nobel
Prize.
1911- Rutherford- discovered
nucleus of the atom with gold foil
experiment.
1926-Physics Symposium in Switzerland,
Heisenberg-discussed ideas which led to his "Uncertainty Principle"
Planck- introduced idea of discrete bundles of energy called
Quantum,which later became
quantum Physics
Bohr- atomic structure and energy levels
Fermi- discussed ideas on radiation
Einstien- presented paper on relativity
1931- Fermi- discovered neutrino
of the
atom
1932- Chadwick - discovered neutron
1935- Yukawa-did theorhetical work which postulated the existance of a
particle
about 200 times as massive as an electron.
1936- Anderson, while studying cosmic rays discovered Pi meson (Pion)
1939- Meitner coined the term
fission
1944-45, Oppenheimer, et. al. - built the atomic bomb
1947- Powell, found another kind of Pi meson
Ch 4.
VESPER Theory: Valence shell electron repulsion theory- in general, the theory is
based on these ideas;
1. When elements combine, the outermost electrons; that is, those electrons with levels of
energy which will cause them to orbit at the greatest distance from the nucleus, will be
the only electrons directly involved with the reaction of these elements to form
compounds.
2. The energy of an electron is tied into the position (the probable location ) of the
electron by discrete amounts of energy called quanta . The principle quantum number is
symbolized by n. The greatest number of electrons possible in any one energy level is
described by the equation , # electrons = 2n2
Describing the size and shape of the electron cloud(the probable location of the electron):
l = sublevels within each of the principle energy levels
s level = sharp level = 2 electrons (at most),
p level = principle level= 6 electrons at most,
d level = diffuse level= 10 electrons at most
f level= fundamental level=14 electrons at most
Electron configuration: can explain the properties of an element
(e.g., 1s22s22p3 is the electron configuration for Nitrogen.,if you add the superscripts
in an electron configuration they equal the atomic number of that element.)
Lewis Dot Diagram:
Since the outermost electrons are the ones involved in forming new compounds (through
either transfer or sharing),let the symbol of the element represent the inner electrons and
place dots around the symbol of the element to represent these outermost electrons. In
metals the number of dots is equal to the charge. In nonmetals the number of dots is equal
to the last digit in the group number for the element.
(e.g. for Hydrogen which has an electron configuration of H = 1s1 the Lewis dot
diagram would be
BALANCE EQUATIONS
Reactants ------------ Products
(elements mixed together,or compounds mixed together)---- yields ,or goes to-- ( new
compounds)
Law of Conservation of Mass
- There must be the same number of each kind of each
element on both sides of an equation( matter is neither created or destroyed ,only changed
into or from energy) .
To Balance an EquationStep 1. – Write the correct formulas for the compounds.{NOTE. : a.) if the element is not
one of the diatomic seven{ H,N,O,F,Cl,Br,I} write ONLY the symbol for the element, no
charges ,no subscripts!! Diatomic seven always have subscript 2 when they are
uncombined with another element.
b.) If the compound has two words, i.e. zinc chloride- you must take the three steps in
writing the formula (see binary formula writing in these notes)
Step two- Count the numbers of each kind of each atom and list them for both the
reactant side and the product side( as below)
Fe + O2 ----
Fe2O3
Iron
1 atom -----
Oxygen 2 atoms ----
Iron 2 atoms
oxygen 3 atoms
To balance the equation you may not change the subscript numbers (i.e., O 2 )
You must instead multiply the elements ( or ) compounds By Whole numbers placed in
Front of the elements or compounds(as below)
4 Fe + 3 O2 ------ 2 Fe2O3
Now: Iron 4 atoms
Iron 4 atoms (coefficient 2 times subscript 2)
---
Oxygen 6 atoms
---
oxygen 6 atoms
Types of Chemical Reactions:
Synthesis:
two reactants combine to form a new product
4 Na + O2-------- 2 Na2O
Decomposition: One compound decomposes into it’s elements
2CaO
-------- 2Ca + O2
Single Replacement(Displacement) :element plus compound -new compound plus
element.
Mg + HCl --- MgCl2
+ H2
Double Replacement(Displacement): compound + compound - new compound + new
compound.[note: the front of every compound is positive(the cation) and the back of
every compound is negative(the anion). In D.R. and in S.R. reactions the positive part of
one compound always combines with the negative part of the other compound. Also
always write the positive element first in a compound.]
Combustion: hydrocarbon burns in oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O
CH4 + 2 O2 - CO2 + 2 H2O
Chemical Change- new substance formed, e.g., burning paper
Physical Change- change of state or physical appearance,e.g., color change or melting
The Mole
A mole is the amount of matter that contains 6.02 x 10 exp 23 particles( e.g.,as a
dozen always means 12 parts ) . 6.02 x 10 exp 23 is Avagadro’s Number
Gram Formula Mass
Also called the gram molecular mass (for molecules) ,or the gram formula weight, the
gram formula mass is the atomic mass of an element in grams( atomic mass is given in
atomic mass units, a.m.u.’s, --- one a.m.u. is equal to 1/12 th of the mass of a Carbon 12
atom).
To find the G.F.M. : multiply the quantity of each kind of each atom times that atom’s
atomic mass then add the total amu.( for simplicity, round the atomic masses to nearest
whole number)
Example :
H2O
Hydrogen --------------
2 atom H x
1 amu
Oxygen------------------
1 atom O x 16 amu
=2
=16
____________
18 amu
therefore the gfm of
water is 18 grams
Since the grams per mole of a compound or element is equal to the G.F.M., then for
water, one mole is equal to 1 G.F.M. which is also equal to 18 grams of H2O and is also
equal to 6.02 x 10 exp 23 atoms (or ions, or molecules,) of water
GRAMS----------- MOLES----------- ATOMS
Grams/ gfm Moles
moles x Avagadro’s #-- Atoms
Grams <------- Moles/gfm
moles <------------- atoms / Avagadro’s #
Example:
Find the moles in a 580 gram sample of NaCl
580 g NaCl x
1 mole NaCl / 58 g.f.m. NaCl = 10 moles NaCl
Example 2, Find the atoms in 10 moles of NaCl
10 moles NaCl x 6.02 x 10 exp 23 atoms NaCl / 1 Mole NaCL = 6.02 x 10 exp 24
atoms NaCl
Oxidation:
oxidation occurs when an element loses two hydrogen atoms or gains an
oxygen atom.
An element is said to be oxidized if it loses electrons in a chemical reaction
{ Leo the lion goes Ger : Loses Electrons Oxidized, Gains Electrons Reduced}
An element is said to be reduced if it gains electrons in a chemical reaction.
Rule 1 . All Free elements in a chemical equation have zero as an oxidation number.
Rule 2. to find oxidation numbers for other elements use algebra to solve for the ( x )
unknown oxidation number. See below
Example : Find the oxidation number for Sulfur in H2SO4
(# atoms )( primary valence charge)+ (# atoms)(primary valence charge) + (# atoms)(X)=
zero
H2
2(+1)
S
+
1( X )
O4
+
4( - 2) = 0
X+2 -8 =0
X = +6
H2SO4 is +6
so that the oxidation number for Sulfur in
Rule 3. except in free elements and in peroxides , oxygen is always a negative two
oxidation number.
Example, Find the element oxidized and the element reduced in the equation below:
2 Ag
+ CL2 --- 2
AgCL
Step 1- find the oxidation number for silver on both sides of the above equation.
Silver-(in AgCl)
let Ag = X ,then 1(X) + 1( -1) = 0
X=+1
Step 2 – write an ion statement for silver using oxidation numbers
Ag 0 -------------Ag+1
since silver goes from an oxidation number of zero to an oxidation number of plus 1 silver
had to lose an electron, therefore silver is oxidized
Step 3- repeat step 1 above for chlorine
Chlorine(in AgCl)
let Cl = X ,then 1(+1) + 1( X ) = 0
X= -1
Step 4 repeat step 2 for chlorine
Cl0 ------- Cl-1
to go from 0 to –1
chlorine gained one electron per chlorine atom and therefore chlorine
was reduced.
Reaction Rates:
The rate of a reaction is a comparison of the amount of reactants used to the amount of
product formed. Kinetic theory indicates that the speed of the particles is related to the
temperature. Temperature is the average of the kinetic energy of the particles.( ½ mv2)In
order for a reaction to take place, particles of reactants must collide with enough energy
so that they temporarily stick together to form an intermediate compound ,which then
splits apart to form products.
Factors which increase reaction rates :
More collisions = faster reaction, more product formed- (e.g. increase of pressure on
gases will cause more collisions)
Higher temperature = faster reaction, more product – ( more energy in the collisions
makes it easier for the reactants to form intermediates)
Addition of a catalyst= faster reaction- ( a catalyst is an element or compound which
reduces the energy of activation needed for a reaction to take place)
Stirring or crushing = more products, faster reaction( note: enzymes ,in vitro, act as
catalysts) because of increase in surface area on which the reaction takes place.
Reversible Reactions:
reactants
<------ products
Equilibrium – when rate of forward reaction(formation of products ) is equal to the rate
of the reverse reaction( formation of reactants from products).
LeChatelier’s Principle; a system at equilibrium will react to relieve any stress that is
placed upon it.
1. add reactants- more reactant means more collisions= more product formed
2. add products- addition of product will cause a shift toward the reactant side.
3. add heat- if reaction is endothermic- will shift equilibrium toward the product
side(more products formed).:: if reaction is exothermic- will shift reaction toward the
reactant side(less product).
4. increase in pressure- (in equations with gases) increase in pressure may or may not,but
usually will ,cause more collisions, therefore ,more product formed
Solutions: a solution is a homogeneous mixture: a substance is uniformly distributed
throughout another substance. A solution consists of two parts- the solute( the thing being
dissolved ) and the solvent( the thing doing the dissolving)
Molarity= M= moles of solute / liters of solution
------- a measure of the
concentration of a solution
Molality = m = moles of solute / Kilograms of Solvent
Percentage by Mass = %(m-m) = grams of solute / Grams of Solution
Percentage by volume = %(m-v) = grams of solute / milliliters of solution
Percentage by volume –volume=%(v-v) = volume of solute per 100 milliliters of solution
.
Gas Laws,
Kinetic Theory1. A gas is mostly empty space with a few atoms or molecules
2. Gas particles collide with each other and the walls of the container in which they are
placed without being attracted to or repelled by each other (much).
3. Gas particles move faster as temperature increases and slower as temperature
decreases.
Properties of Gases:
Volume: the amount of space which a gas occupies- may be measured in
mL,L,cm3,dm3,M3
Temperature: equals the average kinetic energy of the particles of gas- must be
converted to Kelvin temperature to solve gas law problems, [ K= C* + 273 ]
Amount- quantity of gas present- usually measured in moles ( which can be converted to
grams or atoms using molar volume and mole theory.)
Pressure- the force exerted by a gas against the walls of it’s container.
Pressure = Force /Area, and may be measured many ways. Normal atmospheric
pressure( at Sea Level) is the pressure we normally live under.
1 atm = 101.3 kPa, =
760 Torr,= 760 mm of Hg,=1.013 bar. Also- 1 lb./in2 = 6.90 x 103 N/m3 , 1
Pascal(Pa)= 1 N/m2 = .000145 lb/in2
Boyles Law:
(pressure vs. volume)
at a constant temperature, the volume of a gas is indirectly
P1V1=P2V2
(inversely) proportional to the pressure applied to the gas.
Charles Law: (temperature vs. Volume) At a constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly
V1T2=V2T1
proportional to it’s Kelvin temperature
Gay-Lussac’s Law:
if pressure and temperature are kept constant gasses react in
volume proportions that are whole numbers.
Combined Gas Law: combines Charles and Boyles laws –
P1V1T2=P2V2T1
[note: in all gas law equations problems temperature MUST be converted to
Kelvin degrees.]
Daltons Law of Partial Presssure: the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to
the sum of the partial pressures exerted by the individual gases in a mixture.
Ptotal= P1 + P2 ….
Dalton’s Law above is used often to correct for the pressure for a dry gas which was
collected over water.(e.g. Find the pressure of hydrogen gas collected over water if the
pressure total on the hydrogen is 1575 kPa and the partial pressure of the water is 75
kPa. Answer: Pt –P H20 = P H2
1575 kPa- 75 kPa= 1500 kPa
Molar Volume
According to Avagadro’s Principle- at constant pressure and temperature, equal volumes
of gases contain equal numbers of particles. This is used with gas law problems at
S.T.P.( standard temperature is 0* C and 100 kPa). At S.T.P. any gas occupies 22.4 L
of volume.
IDEAL GAS LAW: - relates the amount of a gas in moles to the volume, temperature
PV=nRT
and pressureR= ideal gas constant = 8.31
n= number of moles
dm3.kPa/mole*K , 0r .0821 L.atm/mole*k
Temperature= Kelvin degrees the volume and pressure units
determine the R value which is appropriate.
Vapor Pressure: - the pressure of a gas above a liquidHenry’s Law: the number of molecules of a gas dissolved in a liquid is directly related
to the gas pressure above the liquid(see- blood gases, etc.).
Grahams Law: The relative rates at which two gases under identical conditions of
temperature and pressure will diffuse( = random scattering of the gas molecules,e.g.
leaving a perfume bottle uncapped will cause a room ,over time, to smell like the
perfume) vary inversely as the square roots of the molecular masses of the gases.
V1/V2= Square root of M2/M1
Periodic Trends of the Elements: (General Reactivity of elemental trends )
Acids and Bases
Arrhenius definitions: Acids form hydronium ions (H3O+) in aqueous solutions,bases
form hydroxyl ions (OH-)
Bronsted definitions: Acids donate H+ ion(proton),bases accept H+ ion
Properties of acids: sour,watery,react with active metals,produce H2, conduct electricity
,ph is , 7, turn blue litmus red
Properties of bases: bitter,slippery,generally do not react with active metals ,conduct
electricity,turn red litmus blue, pH. 7
Ionization constant for water: Kw= [ H3O+] [ OH-] =
=1.0x 10 M
Formulas for solving acid base problems:
pH= -log(H3O+) , ,,
-14
[H3O+]= antilog (- pH) ,,,,
pH + pOH = 14
Notes :Organic Chemistry
AlkanesProperties: Alkanes are single bonded hydrocarbons, single bonded carbon-carbon
bonds are difficult to break so that alkanes are the least reactive family of organic
compounds.an alkane will undergo combustion to produce CO2 and H2O and heat.
1-4 carbon alkanes are gases ,5-17 carbon alkanes are liquid,18 + carbon and larger
alkanes are solids at room temperature (known as paraffins,these are used as waxy
coatings on fruits and vegetables to improve appearance and help preserve fruit).
Uses: fuels , general anesthetic (halogenated alkanes, e.g. Halothane),coatings, ethylene
is used to ripen fruit
Solubility- alkanes are polar which makes them not soluble in water.
AlkenesProperties-Alkenes contain at least one double bond between carbons. Alkenes have cis
and trans isomers because there is no free rotation around a double bond.General
properties are similar to alkanes. Alkanes are very reactive and maybe converted into
aldehydes and ketones ,etc.
Uses: perfumes and flavorings (e.g., Limonene, lemons and oranges, Myrcene, bay
leaves, Geraniol, oil of roses), alkenes may be polymerized to form plastics, such as
polyethylene
Solubility- similar to alkanes
Alkynes- triple bonds between two carbonsProperties- similar to alkanes, only a few alkynes are found in nature. The most common
is ethyne( acetylene).
Uses: welding torch
Solubility- similar to alkanes
Alcohols- Alcohols contain the substituent hydroxyl group –OH attached to the carbon
chain. Benzene ring plus alcohol group = phenol.
Properties- short chain alcohols are soluble in water (formation of hydrogen bonds),1-3
carbon are miscible, 4 carbon- n-butyl alcohol is slightly miscible( 8g –OH/100 g
water),and 5 carbon pentyl (2g/100g water) and hexyl( 1 g/100 g water). Larger chain
alcohols are generally insoluble in water.Alchols tend to have higher boiling points than
other hydrocarbons of the same molecular weight. The diols tend to be more soluble in
water and have higher boiling points and lower melting points than alcohols with one
hydroxl group only.
Uses- alcohols are one of the most useful families of organic molecules. From alcohols
can be made a large number of other compounds including alkenes, aldehydes, ketones,
carboxylic acids,etc.. Alcohol can be used as a topical astringent, used to make alcoholic
beverages (ethanol),solvents,
Ketones- ( C-C=O-C ) and Aldehydes
( C-C=O -H )
Properties- Boiling Point- ketones and aldehydes have a higher boiling point than do
ethers and alkanes but have a lower boiling point than alcohols. [
alkanes<ethers<aldehydes and ketones< alcohols] ketones and aldehydes have dipoledipole interactions between the carbonyl carbons (intermolecular ) but do not hydrogen
bond between themselves, they do hydrogen bond with water though.
Solubilitities- 1-4 carbon aldehydes and ketones very soluble in water,5+ carbon chains
not very soluble (if any) or insoluble in water.
UsesAldehydes- Formaldehyde (methanal) - reactant gas used to make polymers for fabrics,
insulation, carpeting, plywood, and plastics, aqueous solution(40% methanal) used to
preserve biological specimens. Some aldehydes are used for flavorings- Benzaldehyde-oil
of almonds, Vanillin-vanilla flavoring- Cinnamaldehyde- oil of cinnamon.
Ketones: Acetone(ethanone)- solvent for paint and nail polish and rubber cement, some
ketones are used as flavorings- Butanedione- butter flavor, carvone-oil of spearment and
caraway seeds flavor.
Carboxylic acids- ( -COOH) - similar to weak acids,produce H3O+ ions in water and
neutralize bases. When reacted with alcohol ( with H2SO4 and heat) carboxylic acids
will produce esthers.
Properties- Carboxylic acids have higher boiling points than alcohols ketones and
aldehydes of similar mass.{ b.p.alkanes,<ethers,<aldehydes&
ketones,<alcohols,<carboxylic acids} Hydrogen bonding intermolecular bonding to give
dimer., acts as if mass is doubled. Carboxylic acids ionize in water to produce(carboxlate
ions and hydronium ions) weak acids.
Uses-
Preservatives… Sodium proprionate-preserves bread and cheese,sodium
benzoate added to jams ,juices, margarine relishes,etc. (inhibits mold and bacterial
growth)Monosodium glutamate(MSG) –preserves meat and fish
Esters- (R- C=OOH) - ending with - oate ending,
Properties- will hydrolyze with acids to produce carboxylic acids and alcohols,(enzyme
catalyst in cells) –will hydrolyze with bases to produce soap
Uses - Used in many flavorings and perfumes of flowers and fruits. ,e.g.- ethyl
methanoate, rum flavor, pentyl ethanoate, banana flavors . Aspirin has an ester group,
Notes Organic II
Amines - R- NH2
Properties- since amines contain a polar N-H bond , they can form hydrogen bonds;
hence amines have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons of similar mass,(but lower
than alcohols. Some amines have a “fishy odor”. The amine salts ( e.g. CH3-NH3+Cl-)
are solids at room temperature, odorless ,and soluble in water and body fluids.
Solubility in water- like alcohols smaller amines are soluble in water because they can
form hydrogen bonds. More than six carbon amines are less soluble, more than six
carbons not soluble . Many amines tend to act as bases.
Uses- medicines -such as Benadryl( Diphenylhydramine Hydrochloride) and
Sudafed(Ephedrine Hydrochloride) , pharmaceuticals – narcotics such as cocaine
,Lidocaine(Xylocaine), Procaine (novocaine), alaloids- amines in plants –stimulants and
depressants- nicotine ,quinine,atropine,morphine codeine heroin,caffiene .
Amides- R-C=ONH2 - derivatives of carboxylic acids wherein a nitrogen group
replaces the hydroxl group
Properties- only formide is liquid at room temperature, other amides are solids. Primary
amides have –NH2 and can form hydrogen bonds which gives primary amides high
melting points. Secondary and tertiary amides have lower melting points.
Solubility – primary small chain amides are soluble, as are the amide salts, in water.
Uses- medicine- barbiturates- phenobarbitol (Luminal) ,Nembutal( pentobarbital)
Seconal ( secobarbital) are sedatives or sleep inducers-analgesics- such as Phenacetin
(acetaminophen-tylenol), Sweeteners(synthetic amides) – aspartame,saccharin
Carbohydrates- sugars, mono,di,and polysaccharides- a monsaccharide with three
carbons is called a triose four carbon = tetrose ,etc. structures may be aldoses or ketoses .
isomers of sugars are D and L (Dextrorotatory and Levorotatory) determined by the
position of the hydroxyl group on the penultimate carbon in the carbon chain.
Glucose- Most common sugar is - found in fruits vegetables corn syrup and honey.
Sometimes called blood sugar as it is one of the primary sources of energy to cells.
Lactose- milk sugar, disaccharide ,used in cell membranes ,and brain and nervous system,
Fructose- fruit sugar, ketohexose
Sugars can be ( and often are in vitro) cyclic in nature . Alpha and Beta describe anomers
(anomeric ) positioning , alpha down,beta up. Sugars can form long chain molecules such
as starches(glycogen,animal starch) or cellulose(plant starch ) by forming glycoside
bonds.
Lipids-
fats oils waxes and fat soluble vitamins- , family of biomolecules which are
not soluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents.{from Gr.- lipos – meaning fat or
lard) . Saturated lipids have all single bonds, unsaturated have two or more double
bonds.
Oils-oils are long chain(14 +) carbon chain with carboxylic acid group
Waxes- waxes are fatty acids with long chain alcohol attached by an ester bond. Waxes
are solid or semi- solid at room temperature which make them good biological building
materials or coverings
Triglycerols- triglycerols are glycerol sugars with ester bonded fatty acids
Glycerophospholipids- triglycerol in which one fatty acid chain is replaced by a
phosphate and an amino alcohol
Steroids- cholesterol and steroid hormones- cyclic (four ring ) lipid structures,
Amino acids- carboxylic acid on one side attached to an amine group on the other
side- amino acids are the building material of protein structures. There are 20 amino
acids found in proteins , 10 are essential amino acids. ( essential to health). Amino acids
are dipolar zwitter ions(have both a positive and a negative end.) the characteristics of
each amino acid are determined by the R side chains . Amino acids can be stereoisomers
(D,L) but only L amino acids are used in proteins.
Proteins- proteins are complex long chain(usually more than 50) polymers of amino
acids. Proteins may have attached structures of sugars and or bases like pyrimidines or
purines.
Protein structurePrimary structure- the primary stucture is the sequence or order of arrangement of the
various amino acids in the protein
Secondary structure- descripes the shape of the arrangement of the amino acids relatie
to one another in space /// the secondary structures are –
Alpha helix - (phone cord shape ,coil) - shape held in place by N-H and C=O attraction
in hydrogen bonding e.g- insulin
Beta Pleated Sheet- protein chains are held together side by side by hydrogen bonds(see
page 446,Hill,Kolb)- e.g.,silk
Triple helix- 3 coils of alpha helix wound together like a rope fiber-e.g. collegen,most
abundant protein, makes up as much as 1/3 of protein in vertebrates.
Tertiary structures-
the tertiary structure deals with the attractions between side chain
groups of the amino acids in polypeptide chains- the tertiary structure deals with how the
molecule is folded upon itself. Tertiary structure is held in place by four different types
of bonds- Hydrogen bonds,disulfide bond,ionic bond and dispersion forces. (see page
448,Hill,Kolb)
Quaternary structures- how very large groups of proteins are shaped,tertiary shaping is
more or less intramolecular,quaternary shaping is intermolecular . e.g.,the stacking of
protein globules in the hemoglobin molecule.