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Notes for chem. All 2 Chemistry Notes Factor Label Method: 1. Draw skeleton tree2. Put known quantity in top left quadrant including units 3. “ Walk the Dog” whichever unit is on top line in the top left quandrant goes to the bottom area in the next quandrant to the left(the next conversion step area) 4. Place conversion unit you are going to (looking for) on top of the conversion step area . Make conversion by making a true statement,e.g. 1 ft.= 12 inches. Unit/Unit = 1 so unit cancels out. Metric Conversions: King Kilo Henry Hecto Died Deka Mysteriously Meter,Liter,Gram Drinking deci K 1.0x 103 h 1.0 x 102 da 1.0 x 101 m,L,g 1.0 x 100 d 1.0 x 10 -1 Chocolate Milk centi milli c m 1.0 x 10-2 1.0 x 10-3 ch Part 1, notes : - the nucleus of the atom contains the protons and the neutrons, the electrons are found at some distance from the nucleus of the atom. The charge on one proton is + 1 ,one electron has a charge of –1. the positive charges attract the negative charges. ch 1 notes (part 3 cont.) the nucleus of the atom contains the protons and the neutrons, the electrons are found at some distance from the nucleus of the atom. The charge on one proton is + 1 ,one electron has a charge of –1. the positive charges attract the negative charges. Types of Compounds: WRITING BINARY FORMULAS FOR COMPOUNDS: Ionic compounds: binary Step 1. Write down the symbols and the charges as superscripts[ note: the charge of metal comes from the group # ,non metals get charge from group number minus 18]; Sodium Chloride e.g. Na+1 Cl-1 Step 2. Cross the charges and bring them down to become subscripts. e.g. Na-1 Cl +1 Step 3. Drop signs,ones, and forms of one( reduce to smallest whole number ratio of subscripts. e.g. NaCl NOTES ON NUCLEAR MATERIAL Atom- Consists of mostly empty space, contains a nucleus made up of protons and neutrons which is surrounded by orbiting electrons. PROTONS- positively charged particles in the nucleus of the atom. protons are made up of quarks,(two up quarks and one down quarks, up quarks have a positive 1/3 charge, and down quarks have a negative charge so the net charge on a proton is a positive one charge.) NEUTRONS-Neutrons are particles in nucleus of the atom which have no charge (Neutrons are made up of two down quarks and one up quark, hence no charge.) ELECTRONS-Small particle which orbits the nucleus, has a charge of negative one, has a mass about 1/2000 of the mass of the proton. Nucleus of the atom is approximately one trillionth of the volume of the atom. (about 1.0x 10 exp-25 cm) the atomic size is about 1.0 x 10exp-13 cm. TRULY ELEMENTARY PARTICLES-Particles which are believed to be the smallest indivisible parts of matter.This group of particles are called LEPTONS. LEPTONS-SIX KINDS KNOWN SO FARELECTRON-see above NEUTRINO-discovered by ENRICO FERMI in 1931,very small particle which is emitted when protons or neutrons are split apart. Neutrinos are thought to have almost no mass. Positron- also called an antielectron, small particle which has the same mass as an electron but has a positive charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron but opposite in charge. MESONS-THREE KINDS-TAU,PI,AND MU-SMALL PARTICLES WHICH ARE BELIEVED TO BE MADE UP OF ONE QUARK AND ONE ANTIQUARK ! PI mesons, or pions, are thought to be force carriers which bind GLUONS together. HADRONS- The sub-atomic particles which have complex structure(which means that they can be split into smaller pieces). There are over two hundred known particles in this category. QUARKS- Relatively large particles which make up protons and electrons. There are six kinds ( or flavors !) of quark. They are TRUTH(top),Beauty(bottom),UP,DOWN,Strange,and Charm.(or CHARMED).UP,TOP,AND CHARM have a positive 2/3 charge, while Down ,Bottom ,and Strange have a negative 1/3 charge. Quarks are thought to be held together by Gluons. BARYONS-Protons and neutrons (and a few other particles)-large particles made up of quarks. FORCE CARRIERS-particles which are responsible for carrying forces: Gluon: small particle which has no mass,responsible for carrying binding energy between quarks. One of the" GLUES OF THE UNIVERSE". Pion: The other "GLUE OF THE UNIVERSE", thought to be responsible for carrying binding energy between Gluons . BOSONS- W+, W-,Z, Particles thought to carry the energy which makes radioactive decay possible. Bosons are about one hundred times as massive as a proton. PHOTONS- Particles which carry the force we call electromagnetic radiation(light). Photons exhibit the properties of solid particles and properties of certain wave phenomena at the same time! TIME LINE FOR HISTORY OF ATOM 400 B.C.-Democritus coined the term "atom ",from Greek word for indivisible part 1810- John Dalton- proposed the" law of multiple proportions", elements are made of atoms. 1850- Guy Lussac - volumes of gas,studied how chemicals combine 1859- Robert Bunsen and Robert Kirchoff- invented spectroscope, discovered peculiar properties of light. 1885- Goldstein- canal ray tube, 1896-Thomson,J.J.- discovered electron and proton with cathode ray tube 1896- Henri Bequerel- discovered radiation 1904- Nagaoka- proposed what became known as the "planetary model" for the structure of the atom. 1905- Einstien,Albert- wrote 5 papers as a graduate student-among these was the Photoelectric effect for which he later recieved a Nobel Prize. 1911- Rutherford- discovered nucleus of the atom with gold foil experiment. 1926-Physics Symposium in Switzerland, Heisenberg-discussed ideas which led to his "Uncertainty Principle" Planck- introduced idea of discrete bundles of energy called Quantum,which later became quantum Physics Bohr- atomic structure and energy levels Fermi- discussed ideas on radiation Einstien- presented paper on relativity 1931- Fermi- discovered neutrino of the atom 1932- Chadwick - discovered neutron 1935- Yukawa-did theorhetical work which postulated the existance of a particle about 200 times as massive as an electron. 1936- Anderson, while studying cosmic rays discovered Pi meson (Pion) 1939- Meitner coined the term fission 1944-45, Oppenheimer, et. al. - built the atomic bomb 1947- Powell, found another kind of Pi meson Ch 4. VESPER Theory: Valence shell electron repulsion theory- in general, the theory is based on these ideas; 1. When elements combine, the outermost electrons; that is, those electrons with levels of energy which will cause them to orbit at the greatest distance from the nucleus, will be the only electrons directly involved with the reaction of these elements to form compounds. 2. The energy of an electron is tied into the position (the probable location ) of the electron by discrete amounts of energy called quanta . The principle quantum number is symbolized by n. The greatest number of electrons possible in any one energy level is described by the equation , # electrons = 2n2 Describing the size and shape of the electron cloud(the probable location of the electron): l = sublevels within each of the principle energy levels s level = sharp level = 2 electrons (at most), p level = principle level= 6 electrons at most, d level = diffuse level= 10 electrons at most f level= fundamental level=14 electrons at most Electron configuration: can explain the properties of an element (e.g., 1s22s22p3 is the electron configuration for Nitrogen.,if you add the superscripts in an electron configuration they equal the atomic number of that element.) Lewis Dot Diagram: Since the outermost electrons are the ones involved in forming new compounds (through either transfer or sharing),let the symbol of the element represent the inner electrons and place dots around the symbol of the element to represent these outermost electrons. In metals the number of dots is equal to the charge. In nonmetals the number of dots is equal to the last digit in the group number for the element. (e.g. for Hydrogen which has an electron configuration of H = 1s1 the Lewis dot diagram would be BALANCE EQUATIONS Reactants ------------ Products (elements mixed together,or compounds mixed together)---- yields ,or goes to-- ( new compounds) Law of Conservation of Mass - There must be the same number of each kind of each element on both sides of an equation( matter is neither created or destroyed ,only changed into or from energy) . To Balance an EquationStep 1. – Write the correct formulas for the compounds.{NOTE. : a.) if the element is not one of the diatomic seven{ H,N,O,F,Cl,Br,I} write ONLY the symbol for the element, no charges ,no subscripts!! Diatomic seven always have subscript 2 when they are uncombined with another element. b.) If the compound has two words, i.e. zinc chloride- you must take the three steps in writing the formula (see binary formula writing in these notes) Step two- Count the numbers of each kind of each atom and list them for both the reactant side and the product side( as below) Fe + O2 ---- Fe2O3 Iron 1 atom ----- Oxygen 2 atoms ---- Iron 2 atoms oxygen 3 atoms To balance the equation you may not change the subscript numbers (i.e., O 2 ) You must instead multiply the elements ( or ) compounds By Whole numbers placed in Front of the elements or compounds(as below) 4 Fe + 3 O2 ------ 2 Fe2O3 Now: Iron 4 atoms Iron 4 atoms (coefficient 2 times subscript 2) --- Oxygen 6 atoms --- oxygen 6 atoms Types of Chemical Reactions: Synthesis: two reactants combine to form a new product 4 Na + O2-------- 2 Na2O Decomposition: One compound decomposes into it’s elements 2CaO -------- 2Ca + O2 Single Replacement(Displacement) :element plus compound -new compound plus element. Mg + HCl --- MgCl2 + H2 Double Replacement(Displacement): compound + compound - new compound + new compound.[note: the front of every compound is positive(the cation) and the back of every compound is negative(the anion). In D.R. and in S.R. reactions the positive part of one compound always combines with the negative part of the other compound. Also always write the positive element first in a compound.] Combustion: hydrocarbon burns in oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O CH4 + 2 O2 - CO2 + 2 H2O Chemical Change- new substance formed, e.g., burning paper Physical Change- change of state or physical appearance,e.g., color change or melting The Mole A mole is the amount of matter that contains 6.02 x 10 exp 23 particles( e.g.,as a dozen always means 12 parts ) . 6.02 x 10 exp 23 is Avagadro’s Number Gram Formula Mass Also called the gram molecular mass (for molecules) ,or the gram formula weight, the gram formula mass is the atomic mass of an element in grams( atomic mass is given in atomic mass units, a.m.u.’s, --- one a.m.u. is equal to 1/12 th of the mass of a Carbon 12 atom). To find the G.F.M. : multiply the quantity of each kind of each atom times that atom’s atomic mass then add the total amu.( for simplicity, round the atomic masses to nearest whole number) Example : H2O Hydrogen -------------- 2 atom H x 1 amu Oxygen------------------ 1 atom O x 16 amu =2 =16 ____________ 18 amu therefore the gfm of water is 18 grams Since the grams per mole of a compound or element is equal to the G.F.M., then for water, one mole is equal to 1 G.F.M. which is also equal to 18 grams of H2O and is also equal to 6.02 x 10 exp 23 atoms (or ions, or molecules,) of water GRAMS----------- MOLES----------- ATOMS Grams/ gfm Moles moles x Avagadro’s #-- Atoms Grams <------- Moles/gfm moles <------------- atoms / Avagadro’s # Example: Find the moles in a 580 gram sample of NaCl 580 g NaCl x 1 mole NaCl / 58 g.f.m. NaCl = 10 moles NaCl Example 2, Find the atoms in 10 moles of NaCl 10 moles NaCl x 6.02 x 10 exp 23 atoms NaCl / 1 Mole NaCL = 6.02 x 10 exp 24 atoms NaCl Oxidation: oxidation occurs when an element loses two hydrogen atoms or gains an oxygen atom. An element is said to be oxidized if it loses electrons in a chemical reaction { Leo the lion goes Ger : Loses Electrons Oxidized, Gains Electrons Reduced} An element is said to be reduced if it gains electrons in a chemical reaction. Rule 1 . All Free elements in a chemical equation have zero as an oxidation number. Rule 2. to find oxidation numbers for other elements use algebra to solve for the ( x ) unknown oxidation number. See below Example : Find the oxidation number for Sulfur in H2SO4 (# atoms )( primary valence charge)+ (# atoms)(primary valence charge) + (# atoms)(X)= zero H2 2(+1) S + 1( X ) O4 + 4( - 2) = 0 X+2 -8 =0 X = +6 H2SO4 is +6 so that the oxidation number for Sulfur in Rule 3. except in free elements and in peroxides , oxygen is always a negative two oxidation number. Example, Find the element oxidized and the element reduced in the equation below: 2 Ag + CL2 --- 2 AgCL Step 1- find the oxidation number for silver on both sides of the above equation. Silver-(in AgCl) let Ag = X ,then 1(X) + 1( -1) = 0 X=+1 Step 2 – write an ion statement for silver using oxidation numbers Ag 0 -------------Ag+1 since silver goes from an oxidation number of zero to an oxidation number of plus 1 silver had to lose an electron, therefore silver is oxidized Step 3- repeat step 1 above for chlorine Chlorine(in AgCl) let Cl = X ,then 1(+1) + 1( X ) = 0 X= -1 Step 4 repeat step 2 for chlorine Cl0 ------- Cl-1 to go from 0 to –1 chlorine gained one electron per chlorine atom and therefore chlorine was reduced. Reaction Rates: The rate of a reaction is a comparison of the amount of reactants used to the amount of product formed. Kinetic theory indicates that the speed of the particles is related to the temperature. Temperature is the average of the kinetic energy of the particles.( ½ mv2)In order for a reaction to take place, particles of reactants must collide with enough energy so that they temporarily stick together to form an intermediate compound ,which then splits apart to form products. Factors which increase reaction rates : More collisions = faster reaction, more product formed- (e.g. increase of pressure on gases will cause more collisions) Higher temperature = faster reaction, more product – ( more energy in the collisions makes it easier for the reactants to form intermediates) Addition of a catalyst= faster reaction- ( a catalyst is an element or compound which reduces the energy of activation needed for a reaction to take place) Stirring or crushing = more products, faster reaction( note: enzymes ,in vitro, act as catalysts) because of increase in surface area on which the reaction takes place. Reversible Reactions: reactants <------ products Equilibrium – when rate of forward reaction(formation of products ) is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction( formation of reactants from products). LeChatelier’s Principle; a system at equilibrium will react to relieve any stress that is placed upon it. 1. add reactants- more reactant means more collisions= more product formed 2. add products- addition of product will cause a shift toward the reactant side. 3. add heat- if reaction is endothermic- will shift equilibrium toward the product side(more products formed).:: if reaction is exothermic- will shift reaction toward the reactant side(less product). 4. increase in pressure- (in equations with gases) increase in pressure may or may not,but usually will ,cause more collisions, therefore ,more product formed Solutions: a solution is a homogeneous mixture: a substance is uniformly distributed throughout another substance. A solution consists of two parts- the solute( the thing being dissolved ) and the solvent( the thing doing the dissolving) Molarity= M= moles of solute / liters of solution ------- a measure of the concentration of a solution Molality = m = moles of solute / Kilograms of Solvent Percentage by Mass = %(m-m) = grams of solute / Grams of Solution Percentage by volume = %(m-v) = grams of solute / milliliters of solution Percentage by volume –volume=%(v-v) = volume of solute per 100 milliliters of solution . Gas Laws, Kinetic Theory1. A gas is mostly empty space with a few atoms or molecules 2. Gas particles collide with each other and the walls of the container in which they are placed without being attracted to or repelled by each other (much). 3. Gas particles move faster as temperature increases and slower as temperature decreases. Properties of Gases: Volume: the amount of space which a gas occupies- may be measured in mL,L,cm3,dm3,M3 Temperature: equals the average kinetic energy of the particles of gas- must be converted to Kelvin temperature to solve gas law problems, [ K= C* + 273 ] Amount- quantity of gas present- usually measured in moles ( which can be converted to grams or atoms using molar volume and mole theory.) Pressure- the force exerted by a gas against the walls of it’s container. Pressure = Force /Area, and may be measured many ways. Normal atmospheric pressure( at Sea Level) is the pressure we normally live under. 1 atm = 101.3 kPa, = 760 Torr,= 760 mm of Hg,=1.013 bar. Also- 1 lb./in2 = 6.90 x 103 N/m3 , 1 Pascal(Pa)= 1 N/m2 = .000145 lb/in2 Boyles Law: (pressure vs. volume) at a constant temperature, the volume of a gas is indirectly P1V1=P2V2 (inversely) proportional to the pressure applied to the gas. Charles Law: (temperature vs. Volume) At a constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly V1T2=V2T1 proportional to it’s Kelvin temperature Gay-Lussac’s Law: if pressure and temperature are kept constant gasses react in volume proportions that are whole numbers. Combined Gas Law: combines Charles and Boyles laws – P1V1T2=P2V2T1 [note: in all gas law equations problems temperature MUST be converted to Kelvin degrees.] Daltons Law of Partial Presssure: the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures exerted by the individual gases in a mixture. Ptotal= P1 + P2 …. Dalton’s Law above is used often to correct for the pressure for a dry gas which was collected over water.(e.g. Find the pressure of hydrogen gas collected over water if the pressure total on the hydrogen is 1575 kPa and the partial pressure of the water is 75 kPa. Answer: Pt –P H20 = P H2 1575 kPa- 75 kPa= 1500 kPa Molar Volume According to Avagadro’s Principle- at constant pressure and temperature, equal volumes of gases contain equal numbers of particles. This is used with gas law problems at S.T.P.( standard temperature is 0* C and 100 kPa). At S.T.P. any gas occupies 22.4 L of volume. IDEAL GAS LAW: - relates the amount of a gas in moles to the volume, temperature PV=nRT and pressureR= ideal gas constant = 8.31 n= number of moles dm3.kPa/mole*K , 0r .0821 L.atm/mole*k Temperature= Kelvin degrees the volume and pressure units determine the R value which is appropriate. Vapor Pressure: - the pressure of a gas above a liquidHenry’s Law: the number of molecules of a gas dissolved in a liquid is directly related to the gas pressure above the liquid(see- blood gases, etc.). Grahams Law: The relative rates at which two gases under identical conditions of temperature and pressure will diffuse( = random scattering of the gas molecules,e.g. leaving a perfume bottle uncapped will cause a room ,over time, to smell like the perfume) vary inversely as the square roots of the molecular masses of the gases. V1/V2= Square root of M2/M1 Periodic Trends of the Elements: (General Reactivity of elemental trends ) Acids and Bases Arrhenius definitions: Acids form hydronium ions (H3O+) in aqueous solutions,bases form hydroxyl ions (OH-) Bronsted definitions: Acids donate H+ ion(proton),bases accept H+ ion Properties of acids: sour,watery,react with active metals,produce H2, conduct electricity ,ph is , 7, turn blue litmus red Properties of bases: bitter,slippery,generally do not react with active metals ,conduct electricity,turn red litmus blue, pH. 7 Ionization constant for water: Kw= [ H3O+] [ OH-] = =1.0x 10 M Formulas for solving acid base problems: pH= -log(H3O+) , ,, -14 [H3O+]= antilog (- pH) ,,,, pH + pOH = 14 Notes :Organic Chemistry AlkanesProperties: Alkanes are single bonded hydrocarbons, single bonded carbon-carbon bonds are difficult to break so that alkanes are the least reactive family of organic compounds.an alkane will undergo combustion to produce CO2 and H2O and heat. 1-4 carbon alkanes are gases ,5-17 carbon alkanes are liquid,18 + carbon and larger alkanes are solids at room temperature (known as paraffins,these are used as waxy coatings on fruits and vegetables to improve appearance and help preserve fruit). Uses: fuels , general anesthetic (halogenated alkanes, e.g. Halothane),coatings, ethylene is used to ripen fruit Solubility- alkanes are polar which makes them not soluble in water. AlkenesProperties-Alkenes contain at least one double bond between carbons. Alkenes have cis and trans isomers because there is no free rotation around a double bond.General properties are similar to alkanes. Alkanes are very reactive and maybe converted into aldehydes and ketones ,etc. Uses: perfumes and flavorings (e.g., Limonene, lemons and oranges, Myrcene, bay leaves, Geraniol, oil of roses), alkenes may be polymerized to form plastics, such as polyethylene Solubility- similar to alkanes Alkynes- triple bonds between two carbonsProperties- similar to alkanes, only a few alkynes are found in nature. The most common is ethyne( acetylene). Uses: welding torch Solubility- similar to alkanes Alcohols- Alcohols contain the substituent hydroxyl group –OH attached to the carbon chain. Benzene ring plus alcohol group = phenol. Properties- short chain alcohols are soluble in water (formation of hydrogen bonds),1-3 carbon are miscible, 4 carbon- n-butyl alcohol is slightly miscible( 8g –OH/100 g water),and 5 carbon pentyl (2g/100g water) and hexyl( 1 g/100 g water). Larger chain alcohols are generally insoluble in water.Alchols tend to have higher boiling points than other hydrocarbons of the same molecular weight. The diols tend to be more soluble in water and have higher boiling points and lower melting points than alcohols with one hydroxl group only. Uses- alcohols are one of the most useful families of organic molecules. From alcohols can be made a large number of other compounds including alkenes, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids,etc.. Alcohol can be used as a topical astringent, used to make alcoholic beverages (ethanol),solvents, Ketones- ( C-C=O-C ) and Aldehydes ( C-C=O -H ) Properties- Boiling Point- ketones and aldehydes have a higher boiling point than do ethers and alkanes but have a lower boiling point than alcohols. [ alkanes<ethers<aldehydes and ketones< alcohols] ketones and aldehydes have dipoledipole interactions between the carbonyl carbons (intermolecular ) but do not hydrogen bond between themselves, they do hydrogen bond with water though. Solubilitities- 1-4 carbon aldehydes and ketones very soluble in water,5+ carbon chains not very soluble (if any) or insoluble in water. UsesAldehydes- Formaldehyde (methanal) - reactant gas used to make polymers for fabrics, insulation, carpeting, plywood, and plastics, aqueous solution(40% methanal) used to preserve biological specimens. Some aldehydes are used for flavorings- Benzaldehyde-oil of almonds, Vanillin-vanilla flavoring- Cinnamaldehyde- oil of cinnamon. Ketones: Acetone(ethanone)- solvent for paint and nail polish and rubber cement, some ketones are used as flavorings- Butanedione- butter flavor, carvone-oil of spearment and caraway seeds flavor. Carboxylic acids- ( -COOH) - similar to weak acids,produce H3O+ ions in water and neutralize bases. When reacted with alcohol ( with H2SO4 and heat) carboxylic acids will produce esthers. Properties- Carboxylic acids have higher boiling points than alcohols ketones and aldehydes of similar mass.{ b.p.alkanes,<ethers,<aldehydes& ketones,<alcohols,<carboxylic acids} Hydrogen bonding intermolecular bonding to give dimer., acts as if mass is doubled. Carboxylic acids ionize in water to produce(carboxlate ions and hydronium ions) weak acids. Uses- Preservatives… Sodium proprionate-preserves bread and cheese,sodium benzoate added to jams ,juices, margarine relishes,etc. (inhibits mold and bacterial growth)Monosodium glutamate(MSG) –preserves meat and fish Esters- (R- C=OOH) - ending with - oate ending, Properties- will hydrolyze with acids to produce carboxylic acids and alcohols,(enzyme catalyst in cells) –will hydrolyze with bases to produce soap Uses - Used in many flavorings and perfumes of flowers and fruits. ,e.g.- ethyl methanoate, rum flavor, pentyl ethanoate, banana flavors . Aspirin has an ester group, Notes Organic II Amines - R- NH2 Properties- since amines contain a polar N-H bond , they can form hydrogen bonds; hence amines have higher boiling points than hydrocarbons of similar mass,(but lower than alcohols. Some amines have a “fishy odor”. The amine salts ( e.g. CH3-NH3+Cl-) are solids at room temperature, odorless ,and soluble in water and body fluids. Solubility in water- like alcohols smaller amines are soluble in water because they can form hydrogen bonds. More than six carbon amines are less soluble, more than six carbons not soluble . Many amines tend to act as bases. Uses- medicines -such as Benadryl( Diphenylhydramine Hydrochloride) and Sudafed(Ephedrine Hydrochloride) , pharmaceuticals – narcotics such as cocaine ,Lidocaine(Xylocaine), Procaine (novocaine), alaloids- amines in plants –stimulants and depressants- nicotine ,quinine,atropine,morphine codeine heroin,caffiene . Amides- R-C=ONH2 - derivatives of carboxylic acids wherein a nitrogen group replaces the hydroxl group Properties- only formide is liquid at room temperature, other amides are solids. Primary amides have –NH2 and can form hydrogen bonds which gives primary amides high melting points. Secondary and tertiary amides have lower melting points. Solubility – primary small chain amides are soluble, as are the amide salts, in water. Uses- medicine- barbiturates- phenobarbitol (Luminal) ,Nembutal( pentobarbital) Seconal ( secobarbital) are sedatives or sleep inducers-analgesics- such as Phenacetin (acetaminophen-tylenol), Sweeteners(synthetic amides) – aspartame,saccharin Carbohydrates- sugars, mono,di,and polysaccharides- a monsaccharide with three carbons is called a triose four carbon = tetrose ,etc. structures may be aldoses or ketoses . isomers of sugars are D and L (Dextrorotatory and Levorotatory) determined by the position of the hydroxyl group on the penultimate carbon in the carbon chain. Glucose- Most common sugar is - found in fruits vegetables corn syrup and honey. Sometimes called blood sugar as it is one of the primary sources of energy to cells. Lactose- milk sugar, disaccharide ,used in cell membranes ,and brain and nervous system, Fructose- fruit sugar, ketohexose Sugars can be ( and often are in vitro) cyclic in nature . Alpha and Beta describe anomers (anomeric ) positioning , alpha down,beta up. Sugars can form long chain molecules such as starches(glycogen,animal starch) or cellulose(plant starch ) by forming glycoside bonds. Lipids- fats oils waxes and fat soluble vitamins- , family of biomolecules which are not soluble in water but are soluble in organic solvents.{from Gr.- lipos – meaning fat or lard) . Saturated lipids have all single bonds, unsaturated have two or more double bonds. Oils-oils are long chain(14 +) carbon chain with carboxylic acid group Waxes- waxes are fatty acids with long chain alcohol attached by an ester bond. Waxes are solid or semi- solid at room temperature which make them good biological building materials or coverings Triglycerols- triglycerols are glycerol sugars with ester bonded fatty acids Glycerophospholipids- triglycerol in which one fatty acid chain is replaced by a phosphate and an amino alcohol Steroids- cholesterol and steroid hormones- cyclic (four ring ) lipid structures, Amino acids- carboxylic acid on one side attached to an amine group on the other side- amino acids are the building material of protein structures. There are 20 amino acids found in proteins , 10 are essential amino acids. ( essential to health). Amino acids are dipolar zwitter ions(have both a positive and a negative end.) the characteristics of each amino acid are determined by the R side chains . Amino acids can be stereoisomers (D,L) but only L amino acids are used in proteins. Proteins- proteins are complex long chain(usually more than 50) polymers of amino acids. Proteins may have attached structures of sugars and or bases like pyrimidines or purines. Protein structurePrimary structure- the primary stucture is the sequence or order of arrangement of the various amino acids in the protein Secondary structure- descripes the shape of the arrangement of the amino acids relatie to one another in space /// the secondary structures are – Alpha helix - (phone cord shape ,coil) - shape held in place by N-H and C=O attraction in hydrogen bonding e.g- insulin Beta Pleated Sheet- protein chains are held together side by side by hydrogen bonds(see page 446,Hill,Kolb)- e.g.,silk Triple helix- 3 coils of alpha helix wound together like a rope fiber-e.g. collegen,most abundant protein, makes up as much as 1/3 of protein in vertebrates. Tertiary structures- the tertiary structure deals with the attractions between side chain groups of the amino acids in polypeptide chains- the tertiary structure deals with how the molecule is folded upon itself. Tertiary structure is held in place by four different types of bonds- Hydrogen bonds,disulfide bond,ionic bond and dispersion forces. (see page 448,Hill,Kolb) Quaternary structures- how very large groups of proteins are shaped,tertiary shaping is more or less intramolecular,quaternary shaping is intermolecular . e.g.,the stacking of protein globules in the hemoglobin molecule.